The Great Awakening And The Enlightenment - 866 Words

The Great Awakening and the Enlightenment both profoundly impacted the American Revolution. Both ideas brought about a better understanding of the role of government in governing its people, the function of religion in the State, and a more general keener awareness of the rights of man. However, overall, the Enlightenment played the most pivotal role in bringing the American Revolution to fruition. The Great Awakening’s goal was to merely enhance the role of religion in people’s lives, and did not necessarily revolve around religious freedom. Nevertheless, the ideas it produced paved the way for greater religious tolerance in America. Basically, it was a struggle against the tyrannical nature of the established churches. The precepts of the Enlightenment did not concentrate simply on religious liberty. It concentrated on universal ideas such as limited government, popular sovereignty, private property and yet others. And in order to secure these civil liberties, it was first necessary to establish a government predicated on limited authority. As Jean-Jacques Rousseau said, â€Å"What, then, is the government? An intermediary body established between the subjects and the sovereign for their mutual communication, a body charged with the execution of the laws and the maintenance of freedom, both civil and political.† It is remarkable that at one stage or another, these two great philosophies actually clashed on core topics, such as faith itself. While manyShow MoreRelatedThe Enlightenment and the Great Awakening.1534 Words   |  7 PagesThe Great Awakening and the Enlightenment were two historical events that shaped the thoughts of people and religion in America. The most important factor in both of these events is the common theme of reason behind the movements. The Great Awakening began about the 1930s and reached its climax ten years later in 1740. What exactly was the Great Awakening? It was a wave of religion revivals sweeping through New England that increased conversions and church membership. The beginnings of the GreatRead MoreEnlightenment And The Great Awakening814 Words   |  4 Pages In the 18th century, Enlightenment and the Great Awakening changed the idea of freedom for the colonists. The Great Awakening was a time of religious revival in the colonies. Enlightenment was an intellectual movement in the 18th century which emphasized economic and political freedom. American and British tensions grew in this time period due to Britain wanting America to be under the king’s control. Enlightenment, the Great Awakening, the Founding Fathers, and different social groups changed theRead MoreThe Great Awakening And Enlightenment991 Words   |  4 Pages The ages of Great Awakening and Enlightenment were two of the earliest movements in the early colonies. These movements proved that people can be influenced in many different ways in relation to politics and religion. The Great Awakening called for the revival of the evangelical movement, while the age of Enlightenment took the focus off of the traditional church and dared colonists to apply individualistic views of religion, thus birthing many new religious denominations that challenged traditionalRead MoreThe First Great Awakening And The Age Of Enlightenment1663 Words   |  7 Pagescharacters, feelings, and most importantly God. As the Age of Enlightenment gradually came to an end, the British American colonists were ready to progress beyond the ideology of human reason and depend solely on biblical revelation. During the eighteenth century, a great movement known as the First Great Awakening swept through Protestant Europe and America, leaving a permanent impact on Protestantism. Furthermore, during the First Great Awakening, American colonists gained a deeper sense of personal revelationRead MoreThe Enlighment and the Great Awakening Influence on the American Revolution741 Words   |  3 PagesBoth the Enlightenment and the Great awakening caused the colonists to alter their views about government, the role of government, as well as society at large which ultimately and collectively helped to motivate the colonists to revolt against England. The Enlightenment was vital in almost every part of the founding of America, which included everything from government, to politics itself, as well as religion. Many of the ideas from the Enlightenment and the Great Awakening shaped our country asRead MoreThe Founding Fathers The Politicians Who Led Colonial Assemblies And Congresses1522 Words   |  7 Pagesthrough events like the Great Awakening and Enlightenment, and the emergence of parties such as the Whigs. Meanwhile, they continued to hold close ties to their mother country through imitative actions caused by the mercantilist policies controlling trade and taxes. Although mercantilism imposed by the British brought the colonies and England closer, the ideas of individual liberty and choice that arose in pre-Revolutionary America including the Great Awakening, Enlightenment, and Whig ideologies dividedRead MoreA Leader Of Large Scale Boycotts On British Goods1445 Words   |  6 Pagesevents like the Great Awakening and Enlightenment, and the emergence of unique opinions like the Whig ideology. However, the colonists continued to demonstrate close ties to their mother country through sati sfaction with the mercantilist policies controlling trade in the colonies. Although mercantilism imposed by the British brought the colonies and England closer, the concepts of individual liberty and choice that arose in pre-Revolutionary America through the Great Awakening, Enlightenment, and WhigRead MoreCauses Of The American Revolution1418 Words   |  6 PagesThe American Revolution was not just a spontaneous revolt over taxes some may think . There were many things that led up to the outbreak of the American Revolution, such as the Navigation Act, the Enlightenment, the Great Awakening, the French and Indian War, the Boston Massacre, and the Coercive Acts. It took many years for it to take place. This all started previously before 1775 with the first major event being the Navigation Acts of 1651. The Navigation Act of 1651 was an attempt to put moreRead MoreThe American Revolution And The War For Independence779 Words   |  4 Pagespolitics, culture, and religion. Politics were a significant cause because the colonist disliked the rules and regulations of the Charter that the King established. Culture also caused the Revolution due to the rational thinking of the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment gave the colonist the thought of self governing instead of being under the royal leader. Finally, Religion also impacted the American Revolution because Religion contributed the idea that the church should voice their opinion on governmentRead MoreImpact Of The Columbian Exchange On The New World Essay1570 Words   |  7 PagesII the brother in law to England’s Queen Elizabeth. This defeat gave strength to the Protestant cause across Europe. It also confirmed England’s naval supremacy, and it gave way to further colonization in America. Queen Elizabeth was looked at a s a great rules after this defeat of her brother in law. 5. Describe the â€Å"Headright system†. - This system gave male English colonist who bought a share in the Virginia Company and also could pay for their passage to Virginia would be given 50 acres upon arrival

Acounting information system report Example

Essays on Acounting information system report Essay ACCOUNTING INFORMATION SYSTEM REPORT Executive Summary Rebecca Smith is the owner of a small business concern d â€Å"Ready To Eat† (RTE). RTE is primarily engaged in the business of preparing and distributing packaged meals for its customers. Its customers include the local residents and the visiting tourists of the place. The business is open on all days except for public holidays. Recently, there has been a sudden upsurge in the demand of its products and RTE is facing difficulties to cater to the huge demand. Moreover, lately there has been a new competitor of RTE who is taking away many of its customers. RTE is mainly facing problem in its management which is solely looked after by the owner herself. Hence, Rebecca is thinking of introducing new information systems into its business processes to increase the operational efficiency of RTE. The various impacts of the introduction of information systems have been critically assessed in this study. It has been found that it w ould be very much helpful for RTE if it implements its decision of introducing the new information systems. It would boost its performance and increase its operational efficiency as well. Table of Contents Table of Contents 3 Introduction 4 Discussion 4 Information Systems 4 Introduction of Information Systems in RTE 4 Porter’s Competitive Forces Model 5 Information Requirements of RTE 5 Use of Computer Networks and Internet 6 Management Challenges affecting Organizational Change 6 Introduction of Information Systems – Security and Ethical Issues 6 Conclusion 6 Works Cited 7 Introduction â€Å"Ready To Eat† (RTE) is a locally operated small business firm owned by Rebecca Smith. It is engaged in the business of preparing and distribution of pre-packed meals for its customers. The owner is thinking to introduce information systems in its business processes to improve the management and performance efficiency of the firm. Various informational needs and the impacts of the introduction of information systems in the firm have been discussed in details in this study. Discussion Information Systems Information systems can be defined as a combination of formal procedures which includes collection of data, processing of these data into information and then distributing them to its users. Information systems in an organization can be subdivided into two broader divisions namely, Management Information Systems (AIS) and Accounting Information Systems (MIS). In order to have an efficient operational system, AIS and MIS functions are often integrated with each other in an organization (Hall 7). Information Systems can prove to be very much advantageous for business entities because all business activities can be accessed centrally. It provides an easy back up facility of the information records. The information can be centrally distributed across the organization. Information systems provide a means of record keeping that can be easily done in business organizations. Tax preparation becomes an easy task with the help of Information Systems. It also makes easier for organizations to identify the traits of the customers. Revenue forecasts, investment analysis, determination of best sources of funds and its utilization, performing audits, all can be made easy through the introduction of information systems in business processes (Stair, Reynolds Reynolds 31). RTE, being a small business firm, would require implementation of an accounting information system. It would help the organization to increase its operational efficiency through proper tracking of all the financial information related to its business activities. Introduction of Information Systems in RTE RTE is a small business enterprise engaged in the business of preparation and distribution of meals in packaged form to its customers. The packed meals are served mainly to the local residents and tourists who come to visit the place. The business is operated all through the week, except on public holidays. Rebecca Smith owns the firm and has the sole responsibility of managing the firm. Hence the implementation of accounting information systems in RTE would result in efficient management of the business. Information systems would help in providing financial reports of RTE on a daily basis. Moreover it would assist in providing information that could be utilized to measure the performance efficiency and proper monitoring of the decision making procedures of the firm. With the increasing demand of pre-packed meals, RTE can easily cater to such demands by implementing the information systems. It would help to keep a track of information like, the customer preferences, details of the ra w materials in use, its pricing information, and creating a proper communication channel with the customers. It would thus facilitate the improvement in decision making process by helping to know the exact requirements of the customers and improving the level of satisfaction for its customers. It would also enable to develop a proper strategic planning process for the firm (Gruben, Gresham Behara 1). Porter’s Competitive Forces Model Porter’s competitive forces model is a very well known model that is utilized to assess the competitiveness of a firm or industry in the market. The competitive edge of a firm can be enhanced through the development of strategies with the utilization of this framework (Turban 35). In case of RTE, Porter’s Competitive Forces Model Analysis can be utilized to identify the five forces in the following ways: 1. Buyer Power: RTE is facing a medium buyer power from its customers. It is so because the consumers have significant influence on the product but not so much significant influence on the prices of the products. 2. Supplier Power: Supplier power is weak for RTE because the low switching costs while changing suppliers of its raw materials like fruits, vegetables, etc. The market for these types of products is highly competitive in nature. 3. Threat of New Entrants: The threat of new entrants for RTE is quite high because of low investment required to set up a business like RTE. Another firm can easily come up with innovative ideas and new improved and developed products than RTE. 4. Threat of Substitutes: Threat of substitutes may be high for RTE because substitutes for pre-packed meals are available in plenty in the market and the customers can easily be influenced to go for substituted products. 5. Degree of Rivalry: The degree of rivalry is quite high in case of RTE. It is already facing competition from a newly set up business in the community. Customers do not incur high switching costs while moving from one firm to another related to the business in which RTE is involved. The proper utilization of information systems can help RTE in establishing a competitive edge over its competitors by being pro-active to the changing demands of the customers. Moreover it would help RTE to speed up the delivery process and cater to more orders of pre-packed meals on a timely manner. Information Requirements of RTE RTE requires information regarding the customer preferences. It also requires information regarding the prices of the raw materials like fruits, vegetables etc. RTE also needs to keep a track on the other overhead costs incurred in its operation. Information regarding its inventory is also important. Various business processes that RTE needs to take into consideration for converting them to a computerized system are: Customer order details, delivery details, inventory control systems, accounts receivables and payables, payroll information, raw materials details, prices of different meal packages, calculation of financial figures, competitor profiles Use of Computer Networks and Internet With the help of information systems it would enable to reduce the communication gap between RTE and its customers. Customers would have an easy access to the product varieties available in RTE and can place their orders over internet. Feedback from customers can also be easily obtained from the customers that would enable RTE to improve its products and provide greater satisfaction to its customers. The application of computer networks like intranets, extranets, and internet in business processes is termed as e-business (Gelinas, Dull Wheeler 4). The use of these computer networks by RTE can serve its need by introducing the facility of online order booking and payment for its customers. Moreover, it can be utilized to make information available for all the employees of RTE, so that there is no time lag in the flow of information and delivery is made on time. Management Challenges affecting Organizational Change Introduction of information system in RTE would require computerization of many business processes which were previously done manually. Hence, it would require an organizational change of RTE. Now, while implementing such changes RTE may face challenges in the form of various resistances to changes offered by the existing employees of RTA. Development of management staff and other employees would become necessary for the implementation of information systems in RTE. Introduction of Information Systems – Security and Ethical Issues Ethical questions are raised through information systems that are applicable for both the societies and individuals. It is so because it creates opportunity for significant changes that may possess a threat to the existing delegation of power, rights, money, obligations, etc (worldcomcs.org 128). With the introduction of information systems in RTE, it can lead to ethical issues like divulgement of private information of customers through internet. Key information of RTE’s strategy can also be available to its competitors with the increasing use of internet. Conclusion Hence, it can be concluded that with the rising demand of pre-packed meals, it is the right time for the implementation of information systems in RTE. Its owner, Rebecca Smith is already facing difficulties managing the business on her own. Moreover, RTE is losing customers to its competitors because of its decreased performance efficiency. Hence, the introduction of information systems will increase the operational efficiency of RTE and help in serving its customers in a better way, thereby helping to retain the existing customers as well. Works Cited Gelinas, Ulric, J., Richard B. Dull and Patrick R. Wheeler. Accounting Information Systems. 9th Ed. USA: Cengage Learning, 2011. Print. Gruben, Kathleen, H., Alicia B. Gresham and Ravi Behara. The Role of Information Systems in Small Business: A Focus on Retailers. 2004. PDF File. . Hall, James, A. Accounting Information Systems. 7th Ed. USA: Cengage Learning., 2010. Print. Stair, Ralph, M., George Reynolds and George W. Reynolds. Principles of Information Systems. 9th Ed. USA: Cengage Learning, 2009. Print. Turban, Efraim, et al. Information Technology for Management. 6th Ed. USA: John Wiley Sons, 2008. Print. Worldcomcs. Ethical and Social Issues in Information Systems. n.d. PDF File. http://www.worldcomcs.org/attachments/article/52/Ethical_Computing.pdf.

Contemporary Management Skills and Performance †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Contemporary Management Skills and Performance. Answer: Working as a good manager is about operating an organization while generating good and effective outcomes. The managers in organization are not only seen as a leader but they are also expected to become approachable and fair. For most of the managers, their duties and actions are limited to completing the required work responsibilities. However, completion of work is equally significant, but with this the managers have to develop their leadership skills. In this process, there is need of translating the personal values of managers in to the calculated action. This essay analyzes a statement, i.e. To become leaders, managers need to translate their personal values in to calculated action, which is given Joseph L. Badaracco in his article The Discipline of Building Character. In this article, the author describes three types of defining moments, which are very common in an organization. These are the practical and thought provoking practices, which are designed to translate the values and beliefs of managers into calculated actions. The practices can help the managers in taking out the time from bustle and hustle of the working environment. These defining moments happen when strong challenges force the great managers to develop the decisions for goodness of an organization (Badaracco, 2006). But there is a thing that creates differences between the great executives and ordinary executives, i.e. the great managers or executives always make efforts to remember these three moments intensely. In the given article, as the author writes that To become leaders, managers require to transform their personal values and beliefs into calculated actions. To understand this statement, it is necessary to understand the personal values. Personal values are the characteristics and qualities of individuals, which value themselves. Most of the people choose to leave the organization than violate their personal values and beliefs (Badaracco, 2006). Personal values and beliefs of a leader affect how you can lead and follow the leader. When the personal values are obvious and they are conscious of them, then it works as a strong foundation to think about the leadership style and its implementation to the business operations. There are some managerial skills, which are shown by the managers in organization. To become leaders, the managers have to enhance their personal values and beliefs (Fernandez et al, 2015). The managers as leaders should understand what they value. The managers should identify the significance of ethical behavior. The leaders should show both their ethics and personal values and beliefs in style of leadership and actions. This statement expresses the managers, who are able to resolve these moments successfully; according to this author these managers are able to manage and have the time from their daily busy lives and emphasizes on the major principles and values (Kerpen, 2017). From a study, it is uncovered that these principles and values refurbish their intelligence to work in the organization and perform as a facilitator for pragmatic, smart and politically shrewd actions. By doing this again and again in their work lives, these managers are able to create a strong and authentic identity on the basis of their own ability rather than of someone else. In this way, the managers start to develop the transition from a manager to becoming a leader. The article states that past of translation of values into action in the challenging situations is in the way with thinking of great learner from the times gone by, who also focused the significance of the actions as describing the leadership principles (Lichtenstein, 2012). In an organization, if the managers want to become effective leaders, so they have to develop the skills for effective decision making. In todays working environment, there are three moments, which can help the managers to become an effective leader. Understanding these processes can assist the managers in transforming their personal values in calculated actions, which can produce effective results with work completely done. First kind of moment is the problem of personal identity (Lichtenstein and Dade, 2007). This moment raises a question in the mind of executives, i.e. who am I? The second one is both personal and organizational as well. In an organization, both the behavior of a manager and behavior of groups are kept at stake. It puts the question, i.e. who we are? Furthermore, the third kind of defining moment is the very complex and difficult. This includes the role and importance of the organization in society and community. By defining and understanding these defining moment s, the managers can learn to convert their personal beliefs and values into effective and calculated actions. In addition, these practices can assist the managers to learn to direct the right decisions with proper strength and grace. In the process of transformation of values into actions, they have to analyze themselves by using these moments. In the first dimension, the individual can evaluate the intuitions and feelings, which can create conflicts in the business situation (Miller and Hutton, 2014). They should know about the values, which are in the conflict situation are deeply involved in individuals life. Furthermore, the managers should analyze about their own values and beliefs. In this process, the managers and executives require determining if the ethical mission and vision will be assisted by their employees and co-workers. After determining the vision, the top-executives should convey this ethical vision with the customers, employees and other stakeholders of the organization. In a company, the smart executives can utilize these three dimensions as a prospect to redefine the role of organization in building the society and its welfare (Schoemaker, Krupp and Howland, 2013). Furthermore, it can be stated that the managers also require taking a hard look on the organization in which they are working and creating a representative assessment of whose interpretation will be best at the end. It means recognizing competing interpretations is also an important part of this transforming process. In an organization, there are so many factors, which can determine about the prevalence of interpretation (Northouse, 2015). These factors are like; organizational goals, organizational culture, policies and regulations of company, group norms etc. For generating leadership qualities, there is a need for the managers that they should ask themselves about the point of view, which is most important in winning the competition of interpretations and impact the behavior and thinking of other people and followers. As a leader, the manager should be prepared for any situation. It is clear that future planning is at the heart of the work of managers (Rawwas and Isakson, 2015). As an effective leader, one needs to learn how to spot the issues and challenges before they pushes into crisis. This is the same and true for the above-defined three moments in the organizations. Effective managers should be appointed for successfully resolving the moments before they actually show themselves (Roland and Higgs, 2008). There are some of the most threatening defining moments, which are confronted by the managers motivate them for balancing their family and work. Work-life balance is an important aspect in an organization. The managers should know about the ways to deal with the issues of work-life balance. In addition, the leaders should inspire their followers to manage their work and family together. After reading this article, it can be stated that leaders perform their tasks and duties in an effective way. For example; in the situation of irresistible decisions, the managers generally call meetings, hire experts and lawyers and start the negotiation process in organization (Snyder, 2009). However, these steps can assist them, but they can take very much time by implementing these processes. From the strengths position, the leaders can carry forward their ethical vision of what is good for that situation. Before taking any action, the managers or leaders should ensure that their actions will not influence the health and well-being of the employees, organization, jobs of its employees and income and interest of stakeholders. At the end, it can be said that by engaging in the process of self-enquiry, the managers will with no resources be organizing an unproductive practice in escapism. Rather, using these three defining moments and other processes will aid the managers in better handling on most challenging, vague and important business and organizational issues (Fairhurst and Connaughton, 2014). Along with this, the managers should understand that what mixture of smartness, knowledge, creativity and persistence will help them in transforming their vision into reality. Thus from the above discussion, it can be concluded there are three major questions, which the people should understand in transforming the personal values into calculated actions. These questions are such as; who am I, who are we and what the company is. By considering and answering these questions, the managers can be able to perform and influence like leaders. The managers should pursue the behavior, which can impact the behaviors and characteristics of other people and followers. These are the major concerns for creating a disciplined character in the business environment. After reading the article, it can be stated that defining these three moments force the managers to find a balance between their hearts in all the idealism and work in their unclear truth. Thus, to become leaders, the managers can translate their personal values and beliefs by using above approaches and moments. References Badaracco, J.L, 2006, The Discipline of Building Character, Harvard Business Review. Fairhurst, G.T. and Connaughton, S.L., 2014. Leadership: A communicative perspective.Leadership,10(1), pp.7-35. Fernandez, C.S., Noble, C.C., Jensen, E. and Steffen, D., 2015. Moving the needle: A retrospective pre-and post-analysis of improving perceived abilities across 20 leadership skills.Maternal and child health journal,19(2), pp.343-352. Kerpen, C, 2017, How Personal Values Make You a Better Leader, Retrieved from https://www.inc.com/carrie-kerpen/how-personal-values-make-you-a-better-leader.html. Lichtenstein, S, 2012, The Role of Values in Leadership: How Leaders Values Shape Value Creation, Integral Leadership Review. Lichtenstein, S., and Dade, P, 2007, The Shareholder Value Chain: Values, Vision and Shareholder Value. Journal of General Management. Vol. 33, Issue 1, Autumn, pp. 15-31. Miller, P. and Hutton, D., 2014. Leading from within: towards a comparative view of how school leaders personal values and beliefs influence how they lead in England and Jamaica.Building Cultural Community through Global Educational Leadership, Ypsilanti, MI: NCPEA. Northouse, P.G., 2015.Leadership: Theory and practice. Sage publications. Rawwas, M.Y. and Isakson, H.R., 2015. Ethics of Future Business Managers: The Influence of Beliefs and Values on Ethical Attitudes. InProceedings of the 1998 Multicultural Marketing Conference(pp. 264-264). Springer, Cham. Roland, D. and Higgs, M, 2008, Sustaining Change: Leadership that Works. Chichester: John Wiley Sons Ltd. Snyder, D. 2009, How to Hire a Champion:Insider Secrets to Find, Select, and Keep Great Employees: Easyread Large Bold Edition, ReadHowYouWant.com Publications. Schoemaker, P.J., Krupp, S. and Howland, S., 2013. Strategic leadership: The essential skills.Harvard business review,91(1), pp.131-134.

Star Wars May the Force Be With You Essay Example For Students

Star Wars: May the Force Be With You Essay After meeting up with Jed master Obi-Wan Kenton, Luke sets out on an adventure that involves everything from run-ins at a rough bar to shoot-outs aboard the Death Star and a climactic space battle at the end of the movie. One of the more memorable scenes in the movie is when Obi-Wan is showing Luke how to use a light saber while on their way to Alderman, Obi-Wan starts to teach Luke the ways of the Force, which he tells Luke is the source of a Seeds power, Its an energy field created by all living things, It surrounds us and penetrates us. We will write a custom essay on Star Wars: May the Force Be With You specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now It binds the galaxy together. I believe this is the scene where people really got dragged into the story, and it only got better from there. The dog-fights in space and light saber battles were so thrilling that I was literally on the edge of my seat the first time I watched it, and its a tribute to the movies brilliance that those same scenes are still thrilling to me now, 15 years later. In addition to the great storyline, the characters in Star Wars are some Of the most unforgettable and likable that I have ever seen in a movie. Luke Skylarked was played to perfection by Mark Hamlin and is considered one the most memorable movie heroes of the era. Besides having one of the most memorable heroes, Star Wars also features what is arguably the single best movie villain in all of movie history, Dearth Evader. Evaders character was voiced by one the most recognizable voices of our time, the iconic James Earl Jones. Evader, with his fanged face mask. Black cape, and hollow breathing, struck fear into the hearts of people everywhere and is one of the most mimicked characters ever (Bert. Star Wars (1977)). But, one of the best characters in my opinion is that of Princess Leila, played by Carrie Fisher. Most princess types before her were whining, whimpering, little snots who were incapable of anything beyond tripping and twisting their ankle in times to peril, while Fisher portrayed her character as a bold, brazen, yet sophisticated and educated woman who was aware of her surroundings and capable of defending herself and her realm with the utmost authority (Dramaturgy In his first major role, the now legendary Harrison Ford played the part of Han Solo. Han and his co-pilot Chewable, a 7 foot tall Woke, who Princess Leila refers to as a walking carpet, are smugglers who join Luke and Obi-Wan in their journey. Solo, with his cocky manner and sarcastic witticisms, has most Of the funnier lines in the movie, and the banter between him and Princess Leila is hilarious and keeps the conversations fresh. I found myself chuckling every time they got near each Other. Director and writer, George Lucas did an absolutely fabulous job casting the parts and I wouldnt dream of making one single change. Because Star Wars is such a popular movie, it has found its way into countless aspects of society and has changed the face of pop culture as we know it. According to Roger Bert, George Lucas space epic has colonized our imaginations, and it is hard to stand back and see it simply as a motion picture, because it has so completely become part of our memories. The idea of the Force added a whole new element to the already sic-if story, creating a new religion and belief system that have become a staple of modern pop culture. In tact, over 500,000 people stated their religion as Jed around the world in the 2001 census. While this was nothing more than a massive practical joke, it shows just how much Star Wars has been assimilated into peoples lives and culture over the years and how big of a fan base the movie really has. So big in fact, that every year thousands of fans show up at Star Wars conventions, most of them dressed as their favorite characters. Last year, Celebration Ill was held in Indianapolis, and was the largest convention ever held, with over 30,000 fans showing up at the 4 day event.

The Charlotte Riots and the Killing of Keith Scott

The Charlotte Riots and the Killing of Keith Scott Deadly riots broke out in Charlotte, North Carolina, in September 2016. What had been peaceful protests over the police killing of an African American man named Keith Lamont Scott turned into a melee involving both demonstrators and the authorities. The spread of gunfire, vandalism, and smoke bombs during the riots led the North Carolina governor to declare a state of emergency. In the end, neither the city of Charlotte nor the people caught up in the protests were left unscathed. The 2016 Charlotte Riots The Charlotte riots took place in 2016 after a black man named Keith Lamont Scott was killed by police on Sept. 20. Officers said he had a gun, but Scott’s family denied he was armed and suggested he’d been framed. The riots ended by the morning of Sept. 23, but they had resulted in property damage, injuries, and more than a few dozen arrests. Tragically, one man, Justin Carr, died during the violence that broke out in Charlotte after Scott’s killing.The district attorney ultimately decided not to file charges against the officer who shot Scott because evidence suggested the slain man had been armed and did not follow commands. The Killing of Keith Lamont Scott The Charlotte riots took place just one day after a Charlotte-Mecklenburg police officer fatally shot married father of seven Keith Lamont Scott. The 43-year-old man had parked his car in the lot of the Village at College Downs apartment complex, where police had arrived to serve an arrest warrant to a different individual. The officers said they saw Scott with marijuana and that he’d gotten in and out of his car with a handgun. When they told him to drop his weapon, he ignored their commands, making him an â€Å"imminent threat,† according to the authorities. Charlotte-Mecklenburg police officer Brentley Vinson, who is African American, fired his weapon, wounding Scott. First aid was performed, but Scott did not survive. His wife, Rakeyia Scott, had witnessed his killing and maintained that he was holding a book in his hand, not a gun. Given the history of police shooting unarmed black men, supporters of Scott believed his wife’s account. However, the authorities attempted to verify their version of what happened by stating that they had recovered Scott’s loaded gun from the scene and that he had been wearing an ankle holster. They also said that no book was ever found. Protestors march up Trade St. September 21, 2016 in uptown Charlotte, North Carolina.   Sean Rayford / Getty Images The disparities between law enforcement’s account of events and Rakeyia Scott’s led protesters to take to the streets. The fact that his family suggested that the authorities had planted the gun at the scene only led to more skepticism about the officers involved in Scotts shooting. Several people were harmed during the demonstrations over his death. Riots Break Out in Charlotte Just hours after Scott’s killing, demonstrators poured into the streets. They held the trademark â€Å"Black Lives Matter† signs often spotted in the wake of deadly police shootings of African Americans. The grassroots Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement gained momentum after Mike Brown’s killing in Ferguson, Missouri, in 2014. The movement raises awareness about the fact that African Americans are disproportionately killed by the police. Protesters affiliated with BLM and other groups chanted â€Å"no justice, no peace!† as they marched through downtown Charlotte. Some members of the public reportedly began to pelt the police officers on the scene with water bottles and rocks. The officers responded by firing tear gas. During the unrest, police, news reporters, and civilians all sustained injuries. Arrests were made when some crowd members didn’t disperse, blocked the lanes of Interstate 85, vandalized vehicles and buildings, robbed an ATM and various shops, and set fires. A civilian named Justin Carr, 21,  lost his life in the violence, and a fellow civilian, Rayquan Borum, was arrested for shooting him and sentenced to 30 years in prison in 2019. Altogether, 44 people were arrested for various crimes in the days following the police killing of Keith Lamont Scott. Police officers face off with protesters on the I-85 (Interstate 85) during protests in the early hours of September 21, 2016 in Charlotte, North Carolina.   Sean Rayford / Getty Images When North Carolina Governor Pat McCrory declared a state of emergency in Charlotte after the first night of violence, the North Carolina National Guard and the North Carolina State Highway Patrol arrived in the city to quash the rebellion. In addition, Charlotte Mayor Jennifer Roberts instituted a curfew preventing civilians from being on the streets between the hours of midnight and 6 a.m.  With extra law enforcement patrolling the streets and a curfew, the protests had calmed down considerably on the night of September 22. The mayor extended the curfew one more night, but by September 23, Charlotte businesses were already up and running again. Reaction to the Violence The riots made international headlines and everyone from then-presidential candidate Donald Trump to black activists commented on them. â€Å"Our country looks bad to the world, especially when we are supposed to the world’s leader,† Trump said. â€Å"How can we lead when we can’t even control our own cities? We honor and recognize the right of all Americans to peacefully assemble, protest, and demonstrate, but there is no right to engage in violent disruption or to threaten the public safety and peace.† The North Carolina NAACP issued a similar message, decrying violence and calling on Scott supporters to use their First Amendment rights to call for redress of wrongs,† the group said. â€Å"We understand efforts that undermine the legitimate calls for justice with unjust, random or purposeless acts of violence.   Police stand outside of a vandalized storefront September 21, 2016 in uptown Charlotte, North Carolina.   Sean Rayford / Getty Images Nation of Islam leader B.J. Murphy had a different response to the riots. He called for an economic boycott of Charlotte, a city with a history of police shootings involving black men. In 2013, former college football player Jonathan Farrell, an African American, was fatally shot by Charlotte police after seeking help following a car crash. A jury deadlocked on whether to find the white policeman who killed Farrell guilty. Later, charges against the officer were dropped. In light of police violence against blacks, B.J. Murphy argued that black money shouldn’t matter in Charlotte if black lives don’t.   Restoring the Public’s Trust After the riots, the Charlotte-Mecklenburg Police Department attempted to rebuild the public’s trust in its officers. It produced DNA results tying Keith Lamont Scott’s prints to the gun at the scene and turned up evidence indicating that he’d purchased the weapon. The department did this, in part, to offset claims by Scott’s family that he’d been framed in death, but this evidence failed to put an end to the disputes between the family and the police department. Video of the encounter taken by police dashcams and Rakeyia Scott’s cell phone did not end the dispute either because it did not include the actual shooting. The footage also lacked a clear image of what Scott had in his hands when police fired their shots, so the debates about his conduct that fateful day continued. The authorities said he was a threat, while his widow said he walked toward police calmly with his hands at his sides. Residents gather for a vigil and march to protest the death of Keith Scott September 21, 2016 in Charlotte, North Carolina. Scott, who was black, was shot and killed at an apartment complex near UNC Charlotte by police officers, who say they warned Scott to drop a gun he was allegedly holding.   Brian Blanco / Getty Images Two months after Scott’s killing, Mecklenburg District Attorney Andrew Murray said that no charges would be filed against Brentley Vinson, the officer who fired the fatal shot. Murray reasoned that the evidence indicated that Scott had been armed at the time of his killing. His .380 semiautomatic handgun, according to police, had fallen to the ground after he was shot. The district attorney concluded that Scott didn’t aim his weapon at officers, but he didn’t obey their orders to drop it either. Scotts family expressed disappointment in the district attorney’s findings but asked the public to keep the peace. Sources Gordon, Michael. â€Å"Charlotte protests, riots are the backdrop in the murder trial of Rayquan Borum.† Charlotte Observer, 7 February 2019.Maxwell, Tanya and Melanie Eversley. â€Å"N.C. Gov. declares state of emergency following violent Charlotte protests.† USA Today, 21 September 2016.â€Å"Jury deadlocked in North Carolina officer shooting trial; mistrial declared.† CBS News, 21 August 2015.â€Å"State of emergency in Charlotte amid 2nd night of violent protests.† CBS News, 21 September 2016.

What to do when your boss is stealing your ideas

What to do when your boss is stealing your ideas There are lots of potentially difficult situations that arise in most workplaces- anything from annoying coworkers, to incompetent people on a project team, to having to work twice as hard in an effort to pick up the slack for a lazy, underperforming colleague who always seems to wiggle out of trouble. But the truth is, one of the most challenging professional situations to have to deal with is a scheming and self-serving boss who is constantly stealing your ideas or taking credit for your work, leaving you in the dust with nothing to show for your efforts and accomplishments. Hopefully this doesn’t sound familiar or hit too close to home for you- but if it does, we know how difficult it can be. The last thing any of us want to do is put ourselves into an adversarial situation with our bosses, so there’s a real impulse not to say or do anything about it- which can quietly â€Å"signal† your boss that you’re okay with their bad behavior or at the very least not going to rock the boat for them, which means the theft may continue (or get worse).It’s important to do  something  when your boss is stealing your ideas. But how can you handle the situation delicately enough so that you don’t make things unbearable for yourself, yet firmly and decisively enough to send a clear message that you’re not willing to put up with this?If you or someone you know is struggling with this reality, there is hope, and a way forward. Entrepreneur published an article  that highlights strategies for dealing with a boss who takes credit for your ideas. Use the following to help guide you through the potential hazards and pitfalls of the tough spot you’re in and hopefully make it through unscathed.Step 1: Evaluate the situationWhen you first start getting the feeling that your boss is taking credit for your ideas, your first step is not to unleash the fury on the powers that be in an effort at vengeance or retribution. Take a step back to get some valuable perspective and evaluate the situation. Is your boss really stealing your ideas or just aggregating and presenting the work for the team that reports to her or him? Are you absolutely certain that you’re not getting credit for your work? Just because you may not receive instant adulation for your ideas does not mean that your efforts are going unnoticed. Perhaps your boss is not the overly effusive sort, but nonetheless is appreciative of your contributions and is giving credit where it’s due in a subtle way, or is simply waiting for your next review period to give you your well-deserved rewards? Bottom line- make sure you know for sure that your boss is stealing your ideas before taking things any further.Step 2: Get a second opinion/witness.Okay, so you’re fairly certain that your boss is indeed taking credit for your work- what should you do next? The next best step is to get a second opinion in an effort to have a witness to t he situation in your corner. Why is this so important? Because without a witness, unless you have absolutely irrefutable evidence it’s basically your word vs. your boss’s, and in this scenario the boss often wins. Don’t put yourself in that scenario- instead, choose a credible and reliable witness, preferably someone with a little clout at your workplace, and help your case by having that person in your corner. It could make all the difference if you decide to take things further.Step 3: Document your case.A strong, impassioned story and credible witness will go a long way towards supporting your claim of idea theft, but nothing beats a solid â€Å"paper trail.† Wherever feasible, have some ironclad evidence that documents the onerous events- everything from emails to recorded instances of theft and proof that the ideas were indeed yours to begin with will all serve to substantiate your claim. Nothing is more disheartening than making a bold claim of thef t that you’re unable to prove and it ultimately goes nowhere. Not only will your work situation not improve, it will likely become even more uncomfortable for you there.Step 4: Communicate with your boss.No, we’re not suggesting you kick open their office door and yell at them at the top of your lungs in an effort to get them to admit their wrongdoing. Instead, we’re saying that there may be a more peaceful and professional way to reach a satisfying conclusion. If you politely discuss the situation with your boss, they may be able to capably explain why you’re mistaken about what has transpired. Or maybe they’ll realize they’ve failed to properly give you the credit you’re due are willing to make amends. Often, the path of least resistance is the best one to take first. Hopefully your boss is reasonable enough to deal with, provided your approach is free from hostility and you’re open to reasonable and equitable compromise.If y ou think your boss might be profiting from your ideas without sharing the credit, don’t just do nothing- but don’t do anything rash, either. Take a breath, assess the situation, and make your way through the measured and professional steps mentioned here to come to a resolution that gives you the credit you deserve.

Professional Practice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Professional Practice - Essay Example Currently, there is a lot of money and resources spent in the ongoing management and maintenance of the green areas of the City hence the need to try and curb the cost incurred. The Urban Nature Parks Programme has enlisted the help of a landscape practice in Sheffield to undertake the lead in the project. I have been appointed to run the point in this project. The area to be worked on is approximately 100metres by 150metres. The area has some grass, some indigenous Oak trees, and weeds that facilitate fly trappings. Local residents do not enjoy the area so much because of these said disadvantages. There have been complaining about hedges growing wildly and this can pose a security threat to the locals of that area. The Urban Parks Programme intends to grow trees to fill up 80% of the Park and Wild grass that needs maintenance once every year to fill up the rest of the Park. The JACI LWC is unambiguously for Landscape systems that include lax Landscape works. However, they are not suitable for use on schemes requiring named or designated sub-contractors, scheduled phased instigation and/or accomplishment, as well as not being suitable for projects of over roughly  £200,000 (Walters, 2010). For projects demanding elements to be deliberate by the Service provider the JCLI Landscape Mechanism Contract with Contractor’s Design (JCLI LWCD) must be used over JCLI LWC. This does not deliver that every adjustment is to be treated as a deviation. Where there are priced Work Programmes any correction which results in a modification of the quantities and/or rates in the Work Programmes will result in a deviation (Walters, 2010). This clause comes to bare because my Company has set out two people to do two similar tasks. In essence, I will be providing an estimate while my colleague is tasked with the actual budgeting of the entire project.

Individual Rights Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Individual Rights - Essay Example One of those such rights would be the Miranda rights. In defining them, "Also known as the Miranda Rule or Miranda Warning, when you are arrested in the U.S.A., police officers must warn you that you have the right to remain silent, that anything you say could be used against you in a court of law, that you have a right to contact a lawyer and that if you cannot afford a lawyer, that one will be provided before any questioning if so desired," Adding that, "Failure to issue the Miranda warning renders evidence so obtained to not be admissible in the court. The warning became a national requirement when ordered by the U.S. Supreme Court in the 1966 case Miranda v. Arizona and that is how it got the name," (LawInfo.com, p.1). In the respect of this definition, the case involving Jane Smith would fall into direct violation in regards to the merits and meaning behind Miranda Rights. As the rights clearly state, a person has to be given the opportunity to posses legal counsel at the time of arrest and to have on one present during legal ques tioning. Another pertinent issue towards the legality of the case against a person in Jane Smith's position is the lack of parental consent towards the interrogation of their child who would have been a minor at the time. As common law states, when someone is a minor, they are to be approached with the knowledge and presence of their parents to consent to such approach. As the alleged perpetrator of the crime in question was a minor at the time, they would still be protected by the laws for interrogating minors despite whether or not the deciding authority wishes to charge the alleged as an adult. As there had been no written transferring of guardianship, the Uncle of Jane Smith would have no legal authority in regards to determining how, or even if his niece was to be questioned by the police. With the creation of laws, there is often times events and people that come as a way of facilitating such laws needing to be in place. In the case of the events leading up to case that which lead to the creation of the Miranda Rights law; A kidnapping and sexual assault occurred in Phoenix, Arizona, in March 1963. On March 13 Ernesto Miranda, 23, was arrested in his home, taken to the police station, identified by the victim, and taken into the interrogation room. Miranda was not told of his rights to counsel prior to questioning. Two hours later, investigators emerged from the room with a written confession signed by Miranda. It included a typed disclaimer, also signed by Miranda, stating that he had "full knowledge of my legal rights, understanding any statement I make may be used against me," and that he had knowingly waived those rights (Miranda v. Arizona, p.1). Such case practices that would later become illegal with the creation of the Miranda rights at the conclusion of the trial of Ernesto Miranda. Years since, the issue of delivering Miranda rights to person's in custody has become a central issue to the implementation of the American Judicial system in the way in which it was intended. For reasons of prosecuting crimes, the information gathered from alleged perpetrators is placed under great scrutiny as it comes to the methods for which they were gathered in the first place. Such attention paid in that, if collected even with the slightest bit of a hint that something had

Shares and Joint Stock Companies in the New Economic Model Essay Example for Free

Shares and Joint Stock Companies in the New Economic Model Essay Introduction Good morning, dear colleagues. I’m glad to see everyone here. Thank you for your coming. Let me start by introducing myself. My name is Elena Torlopova. I’m a freshman of the State University of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation. I study at the department of the international economic relations. My aim for today’s presentation is to give you information about Shares and Joint Stock Companies in the New Economic Model I plan to be brief. My presentation will last only 5 minutes. As you can see, my presentation is divided into 3 main parts. At first I would like to give you the basic concepts and characteristics of joint-stock companies. Then I would like to take a look at benefits and lacks of joint stock companies. Lastly we are going to discuss the definition of blue chips and consider a situation where they are used. Please interrupt me if there is something which needs clarifying, otherwise there will be time for your questions at the end of my talk. The main information about joint stock companies Joint-stock company (JSC) is a company, the authorised capital of which is divided into a certain number of shares owned by shareholders. Shareholders bear no responsibility for its obligations and run the risk, within the value of shares belonging to them, of losses associated with the companys activity. A joint-stock company in which shares can be  traded freely and which may have unlimited number of shareholders is an open joint-stock company. A joint-stock company which shareholders have a pre-emptive right to buy shares sold by other shareholders is a closed joint-stock company. Such a company has no right to hold a public subscription to its shares or for that matter offer them for sale to the general public. Advantages and disadvantages of joint stock companies The company provides so many advantages that it is widely popular all over the world. The main advantages are: Huge resources A company can raise large amount of resources from the genera public by issuing shares. Limited liability The liability of the shareholders is limited to the extent of the face value of the shares held by them or guarantee given by them. Diffused risk The entire business risk of a company is distributed over a large number of shareholders. Thus, the risk is reduced for each shareholder. Despite the above advantages, the company form of organisation also suffers from certain demerits. Oligarchic management It is controlled by a small group of Board of Directors who hardly protect the interest of other shareholders. Lack of secrecy It is very difficult to maintain business secrecy in a company because of every business strategy is discussed in the meeting of the Board of Directors and the annual accounts are published and compliance to Government. Fraudulent management The directors and managers may function for their personal gain overlooking the interest of the company. â€Å"Blue chips† Blue chip stock constitute shares or securities of large reliable companies with stable indices derived from income and dividends paid. In essence, the term blue chip is employed in the stock markets by analogy to describe the actions of well-established entities. The term was coined by Oliver Gingold of Dow Jones Company in 1923. It is reported that  the term was born when Gingold was taking note of several businesses with shares priced at $ 200 per share or more. And went on to indicate intentions of writing an article about the blue chips. Thus the term was born. Typically, blue chips are indicators of the overall market. Blue chip shares are the most liquid securities market. The list of blue chip stock changes periodically, but there are always those that manage to stay on top for years. Examples of the western blue-chip companies are Apple, IBM, The Coca-Cola Company, Ford, Google, etc. In Russia blue chips occur mainly in the oil, gas, energy and telecommunications companies. In particular, the blue chips include such companies as Gazprom, Lukoil, Norilsk Nickel, Rosneft, Sberbank, Rostelecom, RusHydro, Polyus Gold, etc. These companies typically have leading positions in the RTS and MICEX. As you can see on the pie chart 15 percent of blue chips belong to Gazprom. It means that Gazprom shares are the most liquid in terms of sales and account for 15 percent of the total trading volume on the market. The second largest sales shares owned by Lukoil. They constitute 14, 02% of total trading in the market. Sberbank is the third after a Gazprom and Lukoil amounts to 13.88% of sales of its shares on the market. Norilsk Nickel and Rosneft makes 7.56% and 7% of sales in the market, respectively. And finally Surgutneftegas and VTB Bank constitute 4,82% and 4,28% of sales in the market. Thus the total weight of seven securities in the index is 67%, which implies that it is these securities provide direction and determine the dynamics of the Russian market as a whole. Conclusions We gave the definition of the concept of joint-stock company and it basic characteristics. Then we looked at the advantages and disadvantages of joint stock companies. And in the end we discussed the stock market, and specifically the blue chips and looked at the dynamics of the sales of seven major blue chips Russia. So, in conclusion I would like to say that joint-stock form of entrepreneurship plays an important role in the formation of normal conditions of operation of enterprises, allows shareholders to raise funds for its activities, and each worker can become the owner of the company, through acquisition of shares, each shareholder reduces the risk of losing a significant amount of money (each at risk only to the extent of its sum shares) allows you to work more efficiently, since  all are interested in making profits and dividends It should be emphasize once again that the joint stock company is a unique form of collective ownership of the implementation, where everybody i nterested in the results of its operations. Bibliography * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint-stock_company * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_chip_(stock_market) * http://www.bukisa.com/articles/444625_basic-overview-of-blue-chip-stock

The Introduction to A Day in the Life of Jane :: essays research papers

The discomfort of the hard seat I was perched on, and the stiffness in my lower body, caused me to wake suddenly. My eyes jolted open to reveal a coach full of rowdy strangers. The noise of the people around me made my ears unpleasantly shriek, my mind full of frustration. I tried to disconnect myself from the world around me, covering my ears with my warm, soft hands. My mind wandered back to the world of tranquillity and peace where I had previously been, urging me to stay there forever. I could feel the warmth of the sun glaring on my face. My cheeks felt cleansed from the combination of the heat and the regular dose of gentle breeze streaming through the partly opened window. However, the echoes of laughter and the cries from those around me crept into my world of calm, forcing my eyelids to drift apart once again. This time I decided not to close them. I looked around me, thinking of the day ahead. I felt excited, although quite nervous about the protest I was about to become a part of. I wondered if it would be similar to the one that was held in Birmingham, the preceding year. I had enjoyed that immensely, knowing that I was part of something that could change people's lives, people's undecided futures. The protests were arranged by an organisation called Jubilee 2000. There aim was to try and persuade developed countries to cancel the huge debts owed by poorer countries. Every year a human chain was formed around the location of the G8 summit, to try and get leaders of the richest countries of the world to 'drop the debt'. My mother gently snored beside me, her chest expanding and deflating like a balloon. Occasionally her body twitched, gently touching my side. I turned myself casually to face my father, who was predictably awake, already enthralled in the train magazine he was reading. These magazines were his only accustomed reading material, and unlike him, I claimed that they were undoubtedly 'boring'. However, what could one expect from a man who spent his teenage years pacing station platforms, bracing himself for the next arrival. Dad saw me peering at him through my tired, puffy eyes and sang his normal daily rendition of "Good Morning Paino!" wide eyed, and abnormally cheery.

6 Negative effects Of Eating Fast food Essay

1. Junk food has an extremely high power density. About 65 percent greater than a standard diet as well as twice up to recommended wholesome diets making us eat a lot more than we or else would. Energy density describes the quantity of calories a product of meals contains with regards to its pounds. Foods having a high power density mistake the brain’s manage systems with regard to appetite, that are based exclusively on part size. 2. British researchers in the Medical Investigation Council Human being Nutrition Center and also the London College of Cleanliness and Exotic Medicine possess determined which repeated consuming at McDonald’s or even KFC or even Burger Full, people may gain weight and be obese. The reason being fast food not just contains a lot more calories compared to traditional meals, but is also prone to undermine regular appetite manage systems. 3. By eating a large Mac as well as fries, your body consumes almost two times as many calories while you would should you ate exactly the same weight associated with pasta as well as salad. Junk food restaurants give food to the being overweight epidemic through getting individuals to eat a lot more calories than they require through continual advertising. See more: Basic Economic problem of Scarcity Essay 4. McDonald’s, KFC, and Hamburger King menus items utilizing nutritional data in the fast meals restaurants’ Internet sites, found that after we consume high power density meals, we don’t slow up the portion dimension so all of us get much more calories than we want. Our present society offers a fragile innate capability to recognize foods having a high power density. Food consumption is evaluated by how big the part, yet an easy food dinner contains a lot more calories than the usual similar sized part of a wholesome meal. The summary is we all have been being misled into eating an excessive amount of food. 5. Individuals get body fat eating normal portion dimensions, but because the food includes a high power density, people put on weight. In evolutionary conditions, the human being appetite was created for low power density meals. In other areas of the planet where these food types are nevertheless the nutritional staples, being overweight is practically non existent. Our physiques were in no way designed to handle the higher energy thick foods consumed within the West. That’s a major reason fast meals in adding to the main rise within obesity. 6. Another truth is that junk food may accelerate people’s danger of blocked arteries that can result in heart episodes. Researchers in the Veterans Administration Clinic in Bay area have demonstrated that the certain kind of fat, known as oxidized body fat, can speed up the accumulation of plaque within arteries.

Achievements of William Wilberforce Essay

William Wilberforce’s greatest and most important political achievement was his long but successful fight to end Britain’s involvement in the slave trade. He used his position as a spokesperson for the abolition movement and was the first member or parliament to raise the issue in the House of Commons. His abolition bill was finally passed by parliament in 1807, but his battle to change the law was not an easy one. Wilberforce tried and failed several times before the bill was finally passed. William achieved the abolishment of the slave trade, with the passing of the bill, in 1807. He remained concerned about the many people still held in slavery and carried on his campaign until the bill outlawing slavery in Britain and all its colonies was passed in 1833 – just days before he died. Wilberforce also devoted himself to other causes and campaigns such as the limiting of the hours children should work. Like Elizabeth Fry, he also fought for improvements in England’s prisons. He appealed for amendments to the poor law (to improve the conditions for the poor) and in 1796 became a founding member of the ‘society for the bettering condition and increasing comforts of the poor’. This organisation worked to reform parish relief and workhouses for the poor and improves their general living conditionsIn October 1784, Wilberforce went on a tour of Europe which changed his life and his future career. He travelled with his mother and sister in the company of Isaac Milner. They visited the French Riviera and enjoyed the usual pastimes of dinners, cards, and gambling. In February 1785, Wilberforce returned to England temporarily, to support William Pitt’s proposals for parliamentary reforms. He rejoined the party in Genoa, Italy, from where they continued their tour to Switzerland. Milner accompanied Wilberforce to England, and on the journey they read The Rise and Progress of Religion in the Soul by Philip Doddridge. The abolitionist Thomas Clarkson had an enormous influence on Wilberforce. He and others were campaigning for an end to the trade in which British ships were carrying black slaves from Africa, in terrible conditions, to the West Indies as goods to be bought and sold. Wilberforce was persuaded to lobby for the abolition of the slave trade and for 18 years he regularly  introduced anti-slavery motions in parliament. The campaign was supported by many members of the Clapham Sect and other abolitionists who raised public awareness of their cause with pamphlets, books, rallies and petitions. William’s best and most important political achievement was to abolish the slave trade in the British Empire. His abolition bill was finally passed by parliament in 1807, but his battle to change the law was not an easy one. Wilberforce tried and failed several times before the bill was finally passed. http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bio/214.htmlhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/643460/William-Wilberforcehttp://satucket.com/lectionary/William_Wilberforce.htmhttp://www.mylearning.org/jpage.asp?jpageid=690&journeyid=189

Freedom of speech, religion and religious tolerance

Freedom of speech, religion and religious tolerance Freedom of speech is the liberty granted to individuals to express themselves freely without any censorship. However, the very rights are subjected to certain limitations such as slander, libel, incitement, obscenity and an intention to commit crime. The discussion on Phoenix pastor who is wishing that President Obama would be dead provides a concise example on the practicality of religious tolerance and freedom of speech.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Freedom of speech, religion and religious tolerance specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It is profound to underscore the fact that both the Phoenix pastor and President Obama have express right to freedom of expression as stipulated in Universal Declaration of Human Rights in article 19. Therefore, the pastor has the right to freely express himself and he should not be censored on the same ground. As stipulated in Article 19 of the Universal Human Rights Declaration, th e pastor has the right to share ideas and information of all kinds regardless of the periphery involved and in this case, he should not be criticized on the basis that he made the remark against the president of United States of America. On the other hand, the pastor had no right to censor Obama bearing in mind that every individual has the right to exercise his or her freedom of expression. However, due to the fact that the pastor used discriminatory remarks that could result into incitement and hate speech, it can be argued that he was not justified at all by wishing for the death of Obama. As a matter of fact, even though freedom of speech and expression is guaranteed to all individual, it may not be good taste to openly make such remarks in public both from religious and political points of view. Furthermore, it is prudent to observe that no single religious code of ethics or principles would permit such utterances at any given time largely due to the fact that it does not promo te peaceful co-existence among people, the latter being a core value in religion. Therefore, the Phoenix pastor is unjustified. We can also argue that to some extent, he abused the freedom of religion, freedom of speech and religious tolerance as laid down in the United States constitution (Ontario consultants on religious tolerance par. 1). In a more critical analysis, the pastor is wrong because there should be a sensible balance when exercising freedom of speech, freedom of religion bearing in mind that religious tolerance should be firmly in place regardless of faith one professes to. In addition, religious freedom of an individual has no impact on the freedom of speech of another person. Therefore, even though the pastor has the right to exercise his religious freedom, he has no right to interfere with the freedom of Obama in any way. The pastor had no authority or constitutional right to incite his congregation against the United States President even though the latter had com mented and apparently gave a nod to contentious debate surrounding abortion.Advertising Looking for essay on religion theology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Moreover, there is need to censor speech on religious issues because individuals have different faiths and hold varying views on certain religious aspects. As a result, the comment made by the pastor was wrong on the basis that he did not merge his religious difference with that of Obama in a tolerant manner but instead tried to suppress the discourse of the speaker. Hence, it was erroneous for him to condemn Obama and wish for his death because he too has the right to speech and religious freedom (Anon par 4). In a more vivid way, it is also prudent to mention that the very constitution protects the rights of every individual regardless of their political or economic backgrounds. As a president, Obama is also protected by the very constitution irrespective o f his religious affiliation or personal take on some matters. If such level of condemnation is permitted in our society and especially at the level of religion, then it may be a real recipe for religious conflicts. The former United States President, Bill Clinton, once asserted that the best way to practice religious freedom is to use legal mechanisms to protect individuals against hate crimes and discriminations. Hence, on this basis, the pastor was wrong even though he has the right to exercise both freedom of speech and religion, he has failed to observe religious tolerance by spreading hate crimes against Obama and other individuals who may want to express themselves freely. Furthermore, the pastor did not observe the freedom of religion when he criticized and wished Obama’s death since he abused the anti-defamation policy. Moreover, his criticism was merely as a result of discrimination on the basis that he believed certain religious group support abortion and for Obama, it was not an exception. Worse still, the pastor failed to put into consideration that religious freedom is the founding principle in United States of America. Hence, he was wrong to remark that president Obama was abusing Christian faith and therefore deserve death. He further failed to honor religious tolerance in the United States of America when he made his speech (Ontario consultants on religious tolerance par 7). Consequently, the pastor failed to use religion accordingly when he criticized Obama publicly. Religious freedom and freedom of speech should be used for purposes of uniting a nation, securing basic human rights and cultivating prosperity. In addition, the pastor demonstrated his authoritative regime by repressing the members of his congregation and their general ideas in the pretext of creating an environment that will deny them the freedom of speech and religion. Additionally, his arbitrary and coercive interference in peaceful Christian religion could possibly res ult into Christians or specifically members of his congregation becoming more resistant towards Obama’s government. His remarks could possibly result into insurgency and separatism of certain religions from the state.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Freedom of speech, religion and religious tolerance specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Furthermore, his remark could highly likely result into negative worsening international relations because he linked extremism with certain religious groups. His remark against Obama was a clear indication that he was trying to widen up the existing divide among religious organizations or groups. Moreover, his speech failed to put into consideration the importance of building common concerns and shared values of religious faith to establish foundations of everlasting peace instead of spreading hate speech against certain individuals. In summing up, it is vital to reiterate that ev ery individual has the right to speech and no religion should be constitutionally supersede the others. The fact that President Obama did not use his belief system and freedom of speech to cross into immorality by justifying hatred and intolerance, the pastor had no right or moral standing to spread hate speech against him since anyone who supports religious intolerance becomes a minor among the believers and clergymen. The protests against the Phoenix pastor are a clear indication that he was indeed wrong in his assertion. Anon. Phoenix Pastor Draws Protests after Telling Church He Prays for Obamas Death. 2009. Web. Ontario consultants on religious tolerance. Religious tolerance: Abortions access all sides of the issue. 15 May, 2010. 24 Aug, 2011. Web religioustolerance.org/abortion.htm

How to Get a Scholarship for Your PSAT Score

How to Get a Scholarship for Your PSAT Score Maybe youve heard about the PSAT/NMSQT test and maybe you havent. For many high school sophomores and juniors out there, when you sit for the exam in October, you dont prepare in any way. You show up and take the test. But with PSAT scholarships on the line, thats a big mistake. Huge! Your PSAT score can earn you big bucks for college, and with rising tuition costs across the board, every single dollar you can add to your college savings account is going to help. Heres how to get a scholarship for your PSAT score that can put cash in your savings account for the university of your choice.   Get Your Name on the Student Search Service List After your guidance counselor registers you for the PSAT/NMSQT  and you take the exam on your assigned PSAT test date, youll have the option to select Yes under the Student Search Service heading when youre filling out information the PSAT test. This will allow more than  1,200 colleges, universities, scholarship programs, and educational organizations to get your information and contact you should you qualify for one of their scholarships. Some organizations who partner with the College Board, the makers of the PSAT test, are listed below. I know that signing up seems like a double-edged sword. Great! My inbox will be filled emails from colleges. However. Scholarships are  out  there and go unclaimed every  year. There is money waiting for you. Why not deal with a little bit of email for the opportunity of some cash? Plus, you can opt out the the Student Search Service any time you want. The National Merit Scholarship Program One of the scholarships available to you via the Student Search Service is the National Merit Scholarship. The National Merit Scholarship Corporation uses the PSAT as an initial screening for this award. Hence, the PSAT is the National Merit Scholarship Qualifying Test (NMSQT). Its a tough one to earn as youll need to score in the upper 95th – 99th percentile on the PSAT to even be considered, but its definitely available for those top scorers. This is why youll prepare, right? Right. Heres more information about the National Merit Scholarship.   Institutions Granting Scholarships Specifically for Minority Students There are a ton of opportunities available when you sign up via the SSS on the PSAT, especially if youre a minority student. Please remember that minority students can mean a diverse range of ideas. Some of these organizations offer scholarships to minorities outside of race or ethnicity. For instance, young women, lgbtq students, and those with differing abilities can apply, as well. Before you dismiss one of these scholarships, do your research. You may actually be able to apply to many of these institutions granting scholarships based in part on your PSAT score.   American Indian Graduate Center:  This group offers scholarships for a whole range of things: financial need, high achievement in academics (ding, ding, ding! PSAT!), involvement in the community, involvement in a tribe, diversity, athleticism, creativity, a specific field (education, engineering, etc.), and a ton more.Asian and Pacific Islander American Scholarship Fund: This institution has partnered with a ton of different organizations and businesses like The Gates Foundation, ATT, Coca-Cola, FedEx, and many more to give cash to minority students. Some of these are actually not specific  for API students! Check to see if you apply!Hispanic Scholarship Fund:  This group offers the Gates Millennium Scholarship and the HSF General Scholarship to students of Hispanic heritage. You could win between $500 and $5,000!  Jack Kent Cooke Foundation:  If youre a high-achieving student and want to attend an elite university, but dont have the funds, then this scholarship that partn ers with the College Board may be able to help.   United Negro College Fund:  Of all of the websites you should visit, this is one of the best, even if you do not identify yourself as an African American student. I searched for scholarships for Caucasian males with households earning $80-$100 K and a mid-range GPA and still found three scholarships for which this person could apply. Check it out! Practice for the PSAT/NMSQT Its not just a test. Its a means to an ends. It can help you earn the cash you need to attend school. Be smart and dont blow this one off!

Creative writing bio Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Creative writing bio - Essay Example The reason for this is that they produce the best steel in the world. After we import their steel, we produce ovens, pots and other kitchen supplies from them. I hope I will be able to succeed and take our business to the next level in future.My Learning of Other Cultures, Global Issues, and PrejudiceI have been to China, India, Kazakhstan, Romania, UAE and many other countries. My travels helped me a lot and taught me about the different cultures and the people. I liked Hong Kong more than everywhere. This may be probably because of the people who are very helpful and are always smiling and the city is so clean proper and regular. The advantage of living in Istanbul is that the people living in Istanbul are very well connected to all parts of the world because of its geographical locations. Moreover, Istanbul is now a blend of different ethnicities and I am very proud of it. I am very open-minded and I do not possess any prejudice against any nation. I actually believe that no count ry has progressed by being prejudiced. Prejudice and discrimination is something, which I am against of always. This is because the irrational attitude and opinions about one group towards other always lead to no progress. The negative prejudices can harm an individual and may even stop the individual from providing best of his own ability. I have a very open minded towards all people and countries of the world. I think that people can progress only when they work together towards their combined success.

Crime and Punishment Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Crime and Punishment - Assignment Example As a result, countries like America reflect increasing number of prisoners as recorded over the years. However psychologists are still continuing their researches on the causes of crimes and trying to decipher why individuals are entering the criminal justice system (Benson 2003). The basic roles of a prison system include: social isolation and confinement, repentance, punishment and deterrence, protection and reformation. A prison system leads to an isolation of the prisoner from the society such that the man’s violations of the legal system do not affect the lives of the common people. It is expected that he would repent on his wrong deeds if kept isolated. Also, with some pain and suffering, it would create some fears among the criminals. It is also the role of the prison system to protect the society from criminals which can be achieved through captivating the criminals. Reformation is the role that is focused on changing the attitude and mental condition of the individual s such that they do not repeat crimes (Bura 2012). Rehabilitation proves to be an essential role of the prison system since it is the prime motive of the justice system to rehabilitate the individuals who have committed crime. If rehabilitation is not focused, then bad people would only turn into worse. Instead, rehabilitation functions to restore the lives of the criminals by changing their mental condition, health conditions and their attitudes trying to prevent them from committing crimes again. Only then these individuals would be able to live normal lives once they are back into the society (Tanner 2012). Effectiveness of Prisons for Rehabilitation: The Present Day Situation: With the rates of punishment being increased and less focus being given on the resettlement needs of the criminals, the rehabilitation of the offenders in the prison system has become less likely to achieve in the present times. It is observed that most of the prisoners who are released are re-offending an d are taken back to prisons. This reflects the fact that the present day prison system is not proving to be effective in rehabilitating the prisoners and instead turning the mental state into worse through punishment measures (Cavadino 2006). Conclusion: Thus from the above study, it can be realized that although it is the role of the prison to make the criminals realize of their wrongdoings and rehabilitate them such that they can lead normal lives without affecting the society, yet in the present times the prison systems have proved not to be effective enough for rehabilitation of individuals, with their focus being more eon punishing the criminals and not correcting them as is needed. Task 2: Prison Does Not Work: Introduction: Prison punishments have been expected to prevent crimes and correct the mental attitudes of the criminals. Yet in the present times it is observed that prison overcrowding has become one of the major causes of concerns, particularly in countries like the A merica. Similar situation is observed in other countries as well presenting a doubt on whether the modern day prison system works or not (Big Question: Does the modern prison system work? 2013). Prison: The Dominant Form of Punishment: The use of prisons for punishing criminals had been into existence since over 200 years ago. Before

Discussion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 141

Discussion - Essay Example It comprises of both the internal and external attributes of the business. Selecting output as an indicator demonstrates to the customers that the firm values environmental, economic and social development. It also illustrates that Coca-Cola considers product safety and the changing customer demands. Hence, reporting on the firms output and giving the consumers a chance to contribute towards the same improves Coca Colas public image (Pride, Hughes & Kapoor, 2014). Customers behavior is an indicator of satisfaction or the reverse. Incorporating it gives Coca Cola an opportunity to gauge the products progress. A dissatisfied consumer base is an indication that the firm should invest in product innovation. It also enables efficient marketing and formulation of pricing mechanisms. Therefore, observing customer behaviors through comments, photos guides policy formulation and organizational culture. A customers attitude can result in either high profits or loss to the business. A bad attitude lowers the profit margin while a positive attitude enhances sales. Therefore, taking into consideration the customers attitudes gives Coca-Cola a competitive edge. It also facilitates product awareness across the globe (Pride, Hughes & Kapoor,

Research into Rational Drug Prescribing in Yemen

Research into Rational Drug Prescribing in Yemen CHAPTER 1 1.0 Introduction In Yemen as well as in many other developing countries the quality of health services which constitute social indicators of justice and equity is far from being satisfactory. Inappropriate, ineffective, and inefficient use of drugs commonly occurs at different health facilities (Abdo-Rabbo, 1993; Abdo-Rabbo, 1997). Irrational prescribing is a habit, which is difficult to cure. This may lead to ineffective treatment, health risks, patient non-compliance, drug wastage, wasteful of resources and needless expenditure. According to the Yemeni constitution, â€Å"patients have the right to health care and treatment† i.e. appropriate care, consent to treatment and acceptable safety. Therefore, health workers should concentrate on making patients better and patients should concentrate on geting better. Health care in general and particularly the drug situation in any country is influenced by the availability, affordability, and accessibility of drugs as well as the prescribing practices. There are many individuals or factors influence the irrational prescribing such as patients, prescribers, workplace environment, the supply system, including industry influences, governments regulations, drug information and misinformation (Geest S. V. et al, 1991; Hogerzeil H. V., 1995).Improving rational use of drugs (RUD) is a very complex task worldwide because changing behavior is very difficult. The 1985 Nairobi conference on the rational use of drugs marked the start of a global effort to promote rational prescribing (WHO,1987). In 1989, an overview of the subject concluded that very few interventions to promote rational drug use had been properly tested in developing countries (Laing et al., 2001). The selection of drugs to satisfy the health needs of the population is an important component of a national drug policy. The selected drugs are called essential drugs which are the most needed for the health care of the majority of the population in a given locality, and in a proper dosage forms. The national list of essential drugs (NEDL) is based on prevailing health conditions, drug efficacy, safety, and quality, cost- effectiveness and allocated financial resources. WHOs mission in essential drugs and medicines policy is to help save lives and improve health by closing the huge gap between the potential that essential drugs have to offer and the reality that for millions of people particularly the poor and disadvantaged medicines are unavailable, unaffordable, unsafe or improperly used. The organization works to fulfill its mission in essential drugs and medicines policy by providing global guidance on essential drugs and medicines, and working with countries to implement national drug policies to ensure equity of access to essential drugs, drug quality and safety, and rational use of drugs. Development and implementation of national drug policies are carried out within the overall national health policy context, with care taken to ensure that their goals are consistent with broader health objectives. All these activities ultimately contribute to all four WHO strategic directions to: reduce the excess mortality of poor and marginalized populations reduce the leading risk factors to human health develop sustainable health systems,and develop an enabling policy and institutional environment for securing health gains. The greatest impact of WHO medicines activities is, and will continue to be, on reducing excess mortality and morbidity from diseases of poverty, and on developing sustainable health systems. The people of our world do not need to bear the present burden of illness. Most of the severe illness that affects the health and well-being of the poorer people of our world could be prevented. But first, those at risk need to be able to access health care — including essential medicines, vaccines and technologies. Millions cannot — they cannot get the help they need, when they need it. As a result they suffer unnecessarily, become poorer and may die young. A countrys health service cannot respond to peoples needs unless it enables people to access essential drugs of assured quality. Indeed, this access represents a very important measure of the quality of the health service. It is one of the key indicators of equity and social justice. (Dr Gro Harlem Brundtland, Director-General, World Health Organization Opening remarks, Parliamentary Commission on Investigation of Medicines, Brasilia, 4 April 2000). 1.1 Background 1.1.1 Brief history of antibiotics According to the original definition by Waksman, antibiotics substances which are produced by microorganisms and which exhibit either an inhibitory or destructive effect on other microorganisms. In a wider, though not universally accepted definition; antibiotics are substances of biological origin, which without possessing enzyme character, in low concentrations inhibit cell growth processes (Reiner, 1982). Up to now, more than 4,000 antibiotics have been isolated from microbial sources and reported in the literature, and more than 30000 semi-synthetic antibiotics have been prepared. Of these, only about 100 are used clinically as the therapeutic utility not only depends on a high antibiotic activity but also on other important properties such as good tolerance, favorable pharmacokinetics etc. These antibiotics are today among the most efficient weapons in the armoury of the physician in his fight against infectious diseases. They are therefore used a large extent and constitute the largest class of medicaments with respect to turnover value. Today, antibiotics are also used in veterinary medicine and as additives to animal feed. In the past they were used addition, as plant protection agents and as food preservatives. In this review we have confined ourselves to a brief description clinicallyuseful antibiotics. These belong to various classes of chemical compounds, differ in origin, mechanism of action and spectrum activity, and are thus important and representative examples of known antibiotics. 1.1.2 Problem Statement This study examines drug use in Yemen and factors leading to inappropriate use of medicines particularly antibiotics and the prescribing pattern. It defines rational drug use and describes policy developments, which aim to encourage appropriate use. In Yemen, as well as in many developing countries, the quality of health services is far from being achieved. Therefore, doctors should concentrate on making patients better and patients should concentrate on getting better. The rational use of drugs requires that patients received medications in appropriate to their clinical needs, in doses that meets their own requirements for an adequate period of time and at the lowest cost to them and their community (Bapna et al, 1994). This means deciding on the correct treatment for an individual patient based on good scientific reasons. It involves making an accurate diagnosis, selecting the most appropriate drug from these available, prescribing this drug in adequate doses for a sufficient length of time according to standard treatment. Furthermore, it involves monitoring the effect of the drug both on the patient and on the illness. There is plentiful evidence of the inappropriate use of drugs, not through self-medication or unauthorized prescribing, but inadequate medical prescribing and dispensing. Normally, patients in Yemen enter health facilities with a set of symmetrical complaints, and with expectations about the care they typically receive; they typically leave with a package of drugs or with a prescription to obtain them in a private market. In previous study in Yemen (misuse of antibiotics in Yemen, a pilot study in Aden) (Abdo-Rabbo, 1997) showed that imported quantity and total consumption of antibiotics is increasing. There is a lack of information about the problems created from antibiotics among the community and about the proper efficacy, safety, and rational use of antibiotics among health authority and workers. No supervision or strict rules are applied in the use of antibiotics. They are easily obtained without prescription and available in some shops. The percentage of prescriptions containing antibiotics was more than a quarter of the total prescriptions contained antibiotics, also antibiotics constituted about 25% of all prescribed drugs. 1.1.2.1 Inappropriate Drug Use Increasing use of medicines may lead to an increase in the problems associated with medication use. The use of medicines, as well as improving health, can lead to undesirable medical, social, economic and environmental consequences. Aspects of drug use, which lead to such undesirable consequences, have been called inappropriate drug use (DHHCS, 1992; WHO, 1988). Inappropriate drug use may include under-use, over-use, over-supply, non-compliance, adverse drug reactions and accidental and therapeutic poisoning (DHHCS, 1992). It also includes medicating where there is no need for drug use, the use of newer, more expensive drugs when lower cost, equally effective drugs are available (WHO, 1988) and drug use for problems which are essentially social or personal (Frauenfelder and Bungey, 1985). 1.1.2.2 Quality Use of Medicines In an attempt to encourage the appropriate use of medicinal drugs and to reduce the level of inappropriate use in Yemen, a policy was developed on the quality use of medicines. The stated aim of the policy is: to optimise medicinal drug use (both prescription and OTC) to improve healthoutcomes for all Yemenis. The policy endorses the definition of quality drug use as stated by the World Health Organisation, Drugs are often required for prevention, control and treatment of illness†. When a drug is required, the rational use of drugs demands that the appropriate drug be prescribed, that it be available at the right time at a price people can afford, that it be dispensed correctly, and that it be taken in the right dose at the right intervals and for the right length of time. The appropriate drug must be effective, and of acceptable quality and safety. The formulation and implementation by governments of a national drug policy are fundamental to ensure rational drug use (WHO, 1987 ; DHHCS, 1992). The rational use of drugs can be impeded by the inappropriate selection of management options, the inappropriate selection of a drug when a drug is required, the inappropriate dosage and duration of drug therapy and the inadequate review of drug therapy once it has been initiated. 1.1.2.3 The Requirement of Drug Information for Quality Use of Medicines A medicine has been described as an active substance plus information. (WHO, 1994). Education, together with, objective and appropriate drug information have been two of the factors consistently identified as necessary for rational drug use (Naismith, 1988; Soumerai, 1988; Carson et al, 1991; Dowden, 1991; Henry and Bochner, 1991; Tomson and Diwan, 1991). The WHO guidelines for developing national drug policies also identify the importance of information provision for facilitating drug use: Information on and promotion of drugs may greatly influence their supply and use. Monitoring and control of both activities are essential parts of any national drug policy (WHO, 1988). Objective and appropriate drug information is a necessary factor for quality drug use. It is the basis for appropriate prescribing decisions by medical practitioners. Medical practitioners require objective product, specific drug information and comparative prescribing information. Objective drug information is avai lable to medical practitioners through continuing education programs co-ordinated by professional bodies, medical and scientific journal articles, drug information services and drug formularies and guidelines. 1.1.2.4 Problem with antibiotic use The concerns regarding inappropriate antibiotic use can be divided into four areas: efficacy, toxicity, cost, and resistance. Inappropriate use of antibiotic can be due to: Antibiotic use where no infection is present, e.g. continuation of peri-operative prophylaxis for more than 24 hours after clean surgery. Infection, which is not amenable to antibiotic therapy, e.g. antibiotics prescribed for viral upper respiratory infection. The wrong drug for the causative organism, e.g. the use of broad anti-Gram negative agents for community acquired pneumonia. The wrong dose or duration of therapy. Such inappropriate use has a measurable effect on therapeutic efficacy. For example, one study showed that mortality in gram-negative septicemia is doubled when inappropriate empiric agents were used (Kreger et al., 1980). Since most initial antibiotic therapy is empiric, any attempt at improving use must tackle prescribing habits, with particular emphasis on guidelines for therapy based on clinical criteria. Inappropriate antibiotic use exposes patients to the risk of drug toxicity, while giving little or no therapeutic advantage, antibiotics are often considered relatively safe drugs and yet direct and indirect side effects of their use are frequent and may be life-threatening, allergic reactions, particularly to beta-lactam agents are well recognized and have been described in reaction to antibiotic residues in food (Barragry, 1994). Life threatening side effects may be occur from the use of antibiotics for apparently simple infections, it is estimated, for example, that eight people per year in UK die from side effects of co-trimoxazole usage in the community (Robert and Edmond, 1998). Indirect side effects are often overlooked: especially as may occur sometime after the antibiotic has been given. These include drug interactions (such as interference of antibiotic with anti-coagulant therapy and erythromycin with antihistamine) (BNF, 1998), side effects associated with the administration of antibiotics (such as intravenous cannula infection) and super-infection (such as candidiasis and pseudomembranous colitis). Each of these may have a greater morbidity, and indeed mortality, than the initial infection for which the antibiotic was prescribed (Kunin et al., 1993). The medical benefit of antibiotics does not come cheap. In the hospital setting, up to fifty percent of population receive one antibiotic during their hospital stay, with surgical prophylaxis accounting for thirty percent of this (Robert and Edmond, 1998). The first penicillin resistant isolate of Staphylococcus aureus was described only two years after the introduction of penicillin. Within a decade, 90% of isolates were penicillin resistant. This pattern of antibiotic discovery and introduction, followedby exuberant use and rapid emergence of resistance has subsequently been repeated witheach new class of antibiotics introduced. Bacteria can so rapidly develop resistance due to two major evolutionary advantages. Firstly, bacteria have been in existence for some 3.8 billion years and resistance mechanisms have evolved over this time as a protective mechanism against naturally occurring compounds produced by other microorganisms. In addition, they have an extremely rapid generation time and can freely exchange genetic material encoding resistance, not only between other species but also between genera. The vast quantities of antibiotics used in both human and veterinary medicine, as a result present in the environment, have lead to eme rgence of infection due to virtually untreatable bacteria. Multiply drug resistant tuberculosis is already widespread in parts of Southern Europe and has recently caused outbreaks in hospitals in London (Hiramatsu et al., 1997). Anti-infective are vital drugs, but they are over prescribed and overused in treatment of minor disorder such as simple diarrhea, coughs, and colds. When antibiotics are too often used in sub-optimal dosages, bacteria become resistant to them. The result is treatment failure where patient continue to suffer from serious infections despite taking the medication (Mohamed, 1999). Drugs prescribed are in no way beneficial to the patient s management if there are some negative interactions among the various agent prescribed, over prescribed, under prescribed or prescribed in the wrong dosage schedule. How does one ensure that good drug are not badly used, misused, or even abused? How can drugs be used rationally as intended? What is rational use of drugs? What does rational mean? 1.1.3 Rational Use of Drug Rational use of drugs requires that patients receive medications appropriate to their clinical needs, in doses that meet their own individual requirements for an adequate period of time, and the lowest cost to them and their community (Bapna et al., 1994). These requirements will be fulfilled if the process of prescribing is appropriately followed. This will include steps in defining patients problems (or diagnosis); in defining effective and safe treatments (drugs and non-drugs); in selecting appropriate drugs, dosage, and duration; in writing a prescription; in giving patients adequate information; and in planning to evaluate treatment responses. The definition implies that rational use of drugs; especially rational prescribing should meet certain criteria as follows (Ross et al., 1992): Appropriate indication. The decision to prescribe drug(s) is entirely based on medical rationale and that drug therapy is an effective and safe treatment. Appropriate drug.The selection of drugs is based on efficacy, safety, suitability, and considerations. Appropriate patient. No contraindications exist and the likelihood of adverse reactions is minimal, and the drug is acceptable to the patient. Appropriate information. Patients should be provided with relevant, accurate, important, and clear information regarding his or her condition and the medication(s) that are prescribed. Appropriate monitoring. The anticipated and unexpected effects of medications should be: appropriately monitored (Vance and Millington, 1986). Unfortunately, in the real world, prescribing patterns do not always conform to these criteria and can be classified as inappropriate or irrational prescribing. Irrational prescribing may be regarded as pathological prescribing, where the above- mentioned criteria are not fulfilled. Common patterns of irrational prescribing, may, therefore be manifested in the following forms: The use of drugs when no drug therapy is indicated, e.g., antibiotics for viral upper respiratory infections, The use of the wrong drug for a specific condition requiring drug therapy, e.g., tetracycline in childhood diarrhea requiring ORS, The use of drugs with doubtful/unproven efficacy, e.g., the use of antimotility agents in acute diarrhea, The use of drugs of uncertain safety status, e.g., use of dipyrone, Failure to provide available, safe, and effective drugs, e.g., failure to vaccinate against measles or tetanus, failure to prescribe ORS for acute diarrhea, The use of correct drugs with incorrect administration, dosages, and duration, e.g., the use of IV metronidazole when suppositories or oral formulations would be appropriate. The use of unnecessarily expensive drugs, e.g., the use of a third generation, broad spectrum antimicrobial when a first-line, narrow spectrum, agent is indicated. Some examples of commonly encountered inappropriate prescribing practices in many health care settings include: (Avorn et al., 1982). Overuse of antibiotics and antidiarrheals for non-specific childhood diarrhea, Multiple drug prescriptions, prescribe unnecessary drugs to counteract or augment, Drugs already prescribed, and Excessive use of antibiotics in treating minor respiratory tract infection. The drug use system is complex and varies from country to country. Drugs may be imported or manufactured locally. The drugs may be used in hospitals or health centers, by private practitioners and often in a pharmacy or drug shop where OTC preparations are sold. In some countries, all drugs are available over the counter. Another problem among the public includes a very wide range of people with differing knowledge, beliefs and attitudes about medicines. 1.1.3.1 Factors Underlying Irrational Use of Drugs There are many different factors that affect the irrational use of drugs. In addition, different cultures view drugs in different ways, and this can affect the way drugs are used. The major forces can be categorized as those deriving from patients, prescribers, the workplace, the supply system including industry influences, regulation, druginformation and misinformation, and combinations of these factors (Table 1.1) (Ross et al., 1992). Table 1.1: Factors affecting irrational use of drug Impact of Inappropriate Use of Drugs The impact of this irrational use of drugs can be seen in many ways: (Avorn et al., 1982). Reduction in the quality of drug therapy leading to increased morbidity and mortality, Waste of resources leading to reduced availability of other vital drugs and increased costs, Increased risk of unwanted effects such as adverse drug reactions and the emergence of drug resistance, e.g., malaria or multiple drugs resistant tuberculosis, Psychosocial impacts, such as when patients come to believe that there is a pill for every ill. This may cause an apparent increased demand for drugs. 1.1.3.2 The Rational Prescription (i.e. the right to prescribe) The rights to prescription writing must be ensuring the patients five rights: the right drug, the right dose, by the right route, to the right patient, at the right time. Illegible handwriting and misinterpretation of prescriptions and medication orders are widely recognized causes of prescription error. The medicines should be prescribed only when they are necessary, should be written legibly in ink or, other wise, should be led, and should be signed in ink by the prescriber, The patients full name and address, diagnosis should be written clearly, the name of drugs and formulations should be written clearly and not abbreviated, using approved titles only. Dose and dose frequency should be stated; in the cases of formulations to be taken as required, a minimum dose should be specified (British National Formulary, 1998). 1.2 Overview on Essential Drug Concept (EDC) Essential drugs relate to an international concept proposed by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1977. WHO in that year published the first model list of essential drug and WHO has put in enormous resources into the campaign to promote the concept of essential drugs (EDL). Essential drugs were defined as a limited number of drugs that should be available at any time to the majority of population in appropriate dosage forms and at affordable prices. In other words, it meets the criteria generally abbreviated as SANE [that mean safety , availability, need efficacy] (John, 1997). The essential drug concept is important in ensuring that the vast majority of the population is accessible to drugs of high quality, safety and efficacy relevant to their health care needs, and at reasonable cost (New Straits Times, 1997a). In support of this concept, the WHOissued a model drug list that provided examples of essential drugs. The list is drawn up by a group of experts based on clinical scientific merits, and provides an economical basis of drug use. This list is regularly, revised and, since 1997, eight editions have been published. This ensures that the need for essential drugs is always kept up-to-date with additions and deletions. Despite such rigorous revision, the number of drugs in the list remains at about 300, although the initial list comprised less. Most of the drugs are no longer protected by patents and can therefore be produced in quantity at a lower cost without comprising standards (WHO, 1995). This is indeed important for countries like Yemen not only because health care are rapidly escalating, but also because the country is still very dependent on imports of strategic commodities like drugs. The EDC will enable Yemen to focus on becoming self-reliant where generic equivalents of essenti al drugs can be manufactured and popularized to meet the health needs of the majority of the people. The limited number of drugs regarded as essential on the list offers a useful guide for practitioners as well as consumers. It underscores the general principle thata majority of diseases can be treated by similar drugs regardless of national boundaries and geographical locations (New Straits Times, 2000) Moreover, certain self-limiting diseases may not need drug treatment as such. For example, in the case of diarrhea, certain so-called potent anti-diarrhoeal drugs (including antibiotics) are not generally recommended. The more preferred treatment is oral rehydration salt that could easily be obtained or prepared at a fraction of the cost while giving the most optimum outcome. The goal of the Yemen Drug Policy was to: Prepare a list of essential drugs to meet the health of needs of the people. Assure that the essential drugs made available to the public are of good quality Improve prescribing and dispensing practices Promote rational use of drug by the public Lower cost of the drugs to the government and public Reduce foreign exchange expenditure 1.3 Yemen Essential Drug List and Drug Policy in Yemen The Concept of Essential Drugs (EDC) developed by World Health Organization (WHO) in 1977 has provided a rational basis, not only for drug procurement at national level but also for establishing drug requirements at various levels within the health care system. The WHOs Action Program on Essential Drugs (DAP) aimed to improve health care. It was established in order to provide operational support in the development of National Drug Policies (NDP), to improve the availability of essential drugs to the whole population and to work towards the rational use of drugs and consequently the patient care. The program seeks to ensure that all people, whenever they may be, are able to obtain the drugs they need at the lowest possible price; that these drugs are safe and effective; and that they are prescribed and used rationally. The first WHO Model List of Essential Drugs was published in 1977 (WHO, 1977). Since that time essential drugs become an important part of health policies in developing countries; but the Essential Drugs Program has been criticized because it emphasis in improving supply of drugs rather than their rational prescribing. The recent revised WHO Model List of Essential Drugs was published the 13th edition in April 2003 (WHO, 2003). Yemen was one of the first countries in the region adapted the EDC in 1984 and implemented this concept in the public sector (Hogerzeil et al., 1989). The first Yemen (National) Essential Drugs List (YEDL) was officially issued in 1987 based on the WHO List of Essential Drugs and other resources. The second edition of the Yemen Drugs list and the Yemen Standard Treatment Guidelines were published in 1996 (MoPHP/NEDL, (1996); MoPHP/NSTG, (1996).Recently the latest edition was published in 2001 with the Standard Treatment Guidelines (STG) in the same booklet (Mo PHP/YSTG and YEDL, 2001). The new edition of the Treatment Guidelines and the Essential Drugs List has been created through a long process of consultation of medical and pharmaceutical professionals in Yemen and abroad. Review workshops were held in Sanaa and Aden and more than 200 representatives of the health workers from different governorates including the major medical specialists participated. Essential drugs are selected to fulfil the real needs of the majority of the population in diagnostic, prophylactic, therapeutic and rehabilitative services using criteria of risk-benefit ratio, cost-effectiveness, quality, practical administration as well as patient compliance and acceptance (Budon-Jakobowiez, 1994). The YEDL was initially used for the rural health units and health centers as well as some public hospitals, but not applied for all levels of health care and the private sector. However, despite the recognition of the essential drug concept by the government of Yemen represented by the Ministry of Public Health and Population (MoPHP), drugs remain in short supply to many of the population and irrationally used. Procurement cost is sometimes needlessly high. Knowledge of appropriate drug use and the adverse health consequences remain unacceptably low. In addition, diminished funding in the public sector resulted in shortage of pharmaceuticals. The 20th century has witnessed an explosion of pharmaceutical discovery, which has widened the therapeutic potential of medical practice. The vast increase in the number of pharmaceutical products marketed in the last decades has not made drug available to all people and neither has resulted in the expected health improvement. While some of the newly invented drugs are significant advance in therapy, the majorities of drugs marketed as â€Å"new† are minor variations of existing drug preparations and do not always represent a significant treatment improvement. In addition, the vast number brand names products for the same drug increases the total number of products of this particular drug resulting in an unjustified large range of drug preparations marketed throughout the world. The regular supply of drugs to treat the most common diseases was a major problem for governments in low-income countries. The WHO recommends that activities to strengthen the pharmaceutical sector be organized under the umbrella of the national drug policy (WHO, 1988). In 1995, over 50 of these countries has formulated National Drug Policies (NDP). The NDP is a guide for action, containing the goals set by the government for the pharmaceutical sector and the main strategies and approaches for attaining them. It provides a framework to co-ordinate activities of patients involved in pharmaceutical sector, the public sector, the private sector, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), donors and other interested parties. A NDP will therefore, indicate the various courses of action to be in relation to medicines within a country. The Yemen National Drug Policy was developed since 1993 with the objectives of ensuring availability of essential drugs through equitable distribution, ensuring drugs efficacy and safety, as well as promoting the rational use of drugs. Unfortunately, it has n Research into Rational Drug Prescribing in Yemen Research into Rational Drug Prescribing in Yemen CHAPTER 1 1.0 Introduction In Yemen as well as in many other developing countries the quality of health services which constitute social indicators of justice and equity is far from being satisfactory. Inappropriate, ineffective, and inefficient use of drugs commonly occurs at different health facilities (Abdo-Rabbo, 1993; Abdo-Rabbo, 1997). Irrational prescribing is a habit, which is difficult to cure. This may lead to ineffective treatment, health risks, patient non-compliance, drug wastage, wasteful of resources and needless expenditure. According to the Yemeni constitution, â€Å"patients have the right to health care and treatment† i.e. appropriate care, consent to treatment and acceptable safety. Therefore, health workers should concentrate on making patients better and patients should concentrate on geting better. Health care in general and particularly the drug situation in any country is influenced by the availability, affordability, and accessibility of drugs as well as the prescribing practices. There are many individuals or factors influence the irrational prescribing such as patients, prescribers, workplace environment, the supply system, including industry influences, governments regulations, drug information and misinformation (Geest S. V. et al, 1991; Hogerzeil H. V., 1995).Improving rational use of drugs (RUD) is a very complex task worldwide because changing behavior is very difficult. The 1985 Nairobi conference on the rational use of drugs marked the start of a global effort to promote rational prescribing (WHO,1987). In 1989, an overview of the subject concluded that very few interventions to promote rational drug use had been properly tested in developing countries (Laing et al., 2001). The selection of drugs to satisfy the health needs of the population is an important component of a national drug policy. The selected drugs are called essential drugs which are the most needed for the health care of the majority of the population in a given locality, and in a proper dosage forms. The national list of essential drugs (NEDL) is based on prevailing health conditions, drug efficacy, safety, and quality, cost- effectiveness and allocated financial resources. WHOs mission in essential drugs and medicines policy is to help save lives and improve health by closing the huge gap between the potential that essential drugs have to offer and the reality that for millions of people particularly the poor and disadvantaged medicines are unavailable, unaffordable, unsafe or improperly used. The organization works to fulfill its mission in essential drugs and medicines policy by providing global guidance on essential drugs and medicines, and working with countries to implement national drug policies to ensure equity of access to essential drugs, drug quality and safety, and rational use of drugs. Development and implementation of national drug policies are carried out within the overall national health policy context, with care taken to ensure that their goals are consistent with broader health objectives. All these activities ultimately contribute to all four WHO strategic directions to: reduce the excess mortality of poor and marginalized populations reduce the leading risk factors to human health develop sustainable health systems,and develop an enabling policy and institutional environment for securing health gains. The greatest impact of WHO medicines activities is, and will continue to be, on reducing excess mortality and morbidity from diseases of poverty, and on developing sustainable health systems. The people of our world do not need to bear the present burden of illness. Most of the severe illness that affects the health and well-being of the poorer people of our world could be prevented. But first, those at risk need to be able to access health care — including essential medicines, vaccines and technologies. Millions cannot — they cannot get the help they need, when they need it. As a result they suffer unnecessarily, become poorer and may die young. A countrys health service cannot respond to peoples needs unless it enables people to access essential drugs of assured quality. Indeed, this access represents a very important measure of the quality of the health service. It is one of the key indicators of equity and social justice. (Dr Gro Harlem Brundtland, Director-General, World Health Organization Opening remarks, Parliamentary Commission on Investigation of Medicines, Brasilia, 4 April 2000). 1.1 Background 1.1.1 Brief history of antibiotics According to the original definition by Waksman, antibiotics substances which are produced by microorganisms and which exhibit either an inhibitory or destructive effect on other microorganisms. In a wider, though not universally accepted definition; antibiotics are substances of biological origin, which without possessing enzyme character, in low concentrations inhibit cell growth processes (Reiner, 1982). Up to now, more than 4,000 antibiotics have been isolated from microbial sources and reported in the literature, and more than 30000 semi-synthetic antibiotics have been prepared. Of these, only about 100 are used clinically as the therapeutic utility not only depends on a high antibiotic activity but also on other important properties such as good tolerance, favorable pharmacokinetics etc. These antibiotics are today among the most efficient weapons in the armoury of the physician in his fight against infectious diseases. They are therefore used a large extent and constitute the largest class of medicaments with respect to turnover value. Today, antibiotics are also used in veterinary medicine and as additives to animal feed. In the past they were used addition, as plant protection agents and as food preservatives. In this review we have confined ourselves to a brief description clinicallyuseful antibiotics. These belong to various classes of chemical compounds, differ in origin, mechanism of action and spectrum activity, and are thus important and representative examples of known antibiotics. 1.1.2 Problem Statement This study examines drug use in Yemen and factors leading to inappropriate use of medicines particularly antibiotics and the prescribing pattern. It defines rational drug use and describes policy developments, which aim to encourage appropriate use. In Yemen, as well as in many developing countries, the quality of health services is far from being achieved. Therefore, doctors should concentrate on making patients better and patients should concentrate on getting better. The rational use of drugs requires that patients received medications in appropriate to their clinical needs, in doses that meets their own requirements for an adequate period of time and at the lowest cost to them and their community (Bapna et al, 1994). This means deciding on the correct treatment for an individual patient based on good scientific reasons. It involves making an accurate diagnosis, selecting the most appropriate drug from these available, prescribing this drug in adequate doses for a sufficient length of time according to standard treatment. Furthermore, it involves monitoring the effect of the drug both on the patient and on the illness. There is plentiful evidence of the inappropriate use of drugs, not through self-medication or unauthorized prescribing, but inadequate medical prescribing and dispensing. Normally, patients in Yemen enter health facilities with a set of symmetrical complaints, and with expectations about the care they typically receive; they typically leave with a package of drugs or with a prescription to obtain them in a private market. In previous study in Yemen (misuse of antibiotics in Yemen, a pilot study in Aden) (Abdo-Rabbo, 1997) showed that imported quantity and total consumption of antibiotics is increasing. There is a lack of information about the problems created from antibiotics among the community and about the proper efficacy, safety, and rational use of antibiotics among health authority and workers. No supervision or strict rules are applied in the use of antibiotics. They are easily obtained without prescription and available in some shops. The percentage of prescriptions containing antibiotics was more than a quarter of the total prescriptions contained antibiotics, also antibiotics constituted about 25% of all prescribed drugs. 1.1.2.1 Inappropriate Drug Use Increasing use of medicines may lead to an increase in the problems associated with medication use. The use of medicines, as well as improving health, can lead to undesirable medical, social, economic and environmental consequences. Aspects of drug use, which lead to such undesirable consequences, have been called inappropriate drug use (DHHCS, 1992; WHO, 1988). Inappropriate drug use may include under-use, over-use, over-supply, non-compliance, adverse drug reactions and accidental and therapeutic poisoning (DHHCS, 1992). It also includes medicating where there is no need for drug use, the use of newer, more expensive drugs when lower cost, equally effective drugs are available (WHO, 1988) and drug use for problems which are essentially social or personal (Frauenfelder and Bungey, 1985). 1.1.2.2 Quality Use of Medicines In an attempt to encourage the appropriate use of medicinal drugs and to reduce the level of inappropriate use in Yemen, a policy was developed on the quality use of medicines. The stated aim of the policy is: to optimise medicinal drug use (both prescription and OTC) to improve healthoutcomes for all Yemenis. The policy endorses the definition of quality drug use as stated by the World Health Organisation, Drugs are often required for prevention, control and treatment of illness†. When a drug is required, the rational use of drugs demands that the appropriate drug be prescribed, that it be available at the right time at a price people can afford, that it be dispensed correctly, and that it be taken in the right dose at the right intervals and for the right length of time. The appropriate drug must be effective, and of acceptable quality and safety. The formulation and implementation by governments of a national drug policy are fundamental to ensure rational drug use (WHO, 1987 ; DHHCS, 1992). The rational use of drugs can be impeded by the inappropriate selection of management options, the inappropriate selection of a drug when a drug is required, the inappropriate dosage and duration of drug therapy and the inadequate review of drug therapy once it has been initiated. 1.1.2.3 The Requirement of Drug Information for Quality Use of Medicines A medicine has been described as an active substance plus information. (WHO, 1994). Education, together with, objective and appropriate drug information have been two of the factors consistently identified as necessary for rational drug use (Naismith, 1988; Soumerai, 1988; Carson et al, 1991; Dowden, 1991; Henry and Bochner, 1991; Tomson and Diwan, 1991). The WHO guidelines for developing national drug policies also identify the importance of information provision for facilitating drug use: Information on and promotion of drugs may greatly influence their supply and use. Monitoring and control of both activities are essential parts of any national drug policy (WHO, 1988). Objective and appropriate drug information is a necessary factor for quality drug use. It is the basis for appropriate prescribing decisions by medical practitioners. Medical practitioners require objective product, specific drug information and comparative prescribing information. Objective drug information is avai lable to medical practitioners through continuing education programs co-ordinated by professional bodies, medical and scientific journal articles, drug information services and drug formularies and guidelines. 1.1.2.4 Problem with antibiotic use The concerns regarding inappropriate antibiotic use can be divided into four areas: efficacy, toxicity, cost, and resistance. Inappropriate use of antibiotic can be due to: Antibiotic use where no infection is present, e.g. continuation of peri-operative prophylaxis for more than 24 hours after clean surgery. Infection, which is not amenable to antibiotic therapy, e.g. antibiotics prescribed for viral upper respiratory infection. The wrong drug for the causative organism, e.g. the use of broad anti-Gram negative agents for community acquired pneumonia. The wrong dose or duration of therapy. Such inappropriate use has a measurable effect on therapeutic efficacy. For example, one study showed that mortality in gram-negative septicemia is doubled when inappropriate empiric agents were used (Kreger et al., 1980). Since most initial antibiotic therapy is empiric, any attempt at improving use must tackle prescribing habits, with particular emphasis on guidelines for therapy based on clinical criteria. Inappropriate antibiotic use exposes patients to the risk of drug toxicity, while giving little or no therapeutic advantage, antibiotics are often considered relatively safe drugs and yet direct and indirect side effects of their use are frequent and may be life-threatening, allergic reactions, particularly to beta-lactam agents are well recognized and have been described in reaction to antibiotic residues in food (Barragry, 1994). Life threatening side effects may be occur from the use of antibiotics for apparently simple infections, it is estimated, for example, that eight people per year in UK die from side effects of co-trimoxazole usage in the community (Robert and Edmond, 1998). Indirect side effects are often overlooked: especially as may occur sometime after the antibiotic has been given. These include drug interactions (such as interference of antibiotic with anti-coagulant therapy and erythromycin with antihistamine) (BNF, 1998), side effects associated with the administration of antibiotics (such as intravenous cannula infection) and super-infection (such as candidiasis and pseudomembranous colitis). Each of these may have a greater morbidity, and indeed mortality, than the initial infection for which the antibiotic was prescribed (Kunin et al., 1993). The medical benefit of antibiotics does not come cheap. In the hospital setting, up to fifty percent of population receive one antibiotic during their hospital stay, with surgical prophylaxis accounting for thirty percent of this (Robert and Edmond, 1998). The first penicillin resistant isolate of Staphylococcus aureus was described only two years after the introduction of penicillin. Within a decade, 90% of isolates were penicillin resistant. This pattern of antibiotic discovery and introduction, followedby exuberant use and rapid emergence of resistance has subsequently been repeated witheach new class of antibiotics introduced. Bacteria can so rapidly develop resistance due to two major evolutionary advantages. Firstly, bacteria have been in existence for some 3.8 billion years and resistance mechanisms have evolved over this time as a protective mechanism against naturally occurring compounds produced by other microorganisms. In addition, they have an extremely rapid generation time and can freely exchange genetic material encoding resistance, not only between other species but also between genera. The vast quantities of antibiotics used in both human and veterinary medicine, as a result present in the environment, have lead to eme rgence of infection due to virtually untreatable bacteria. Multiply drug resistant tuberculosis is already widespread in parts of Southern Europe and has recently caused outbreaks in hospitals in London (Hiramatsu et al., 1997). Anti-infective are vital drugs, but they are over prescribed and overused in treatment of minor disorder such as simple diarrhea, coughs, and colds. When antibiotics are too often used in sub-optimal dosages, bacteria become resistant to them. The result is treatment failure where patient continue to suffer from serious infections despite taking the medication (Mohamed, 1999). Drugs prescribed are in no way beneficial to the patient s management if there are some negative interactions among the various agent prescribed, over prescribed, under prescribed or prescribed in the wrong dosage schedule. How does one ensure that good drug are not badly used, misused, or even abused? How can drugs be used rationally as intended? What is rational use of drugs? What does rational mean? 1.1.3 Rational Use of Drug Rational use of drugs requires that patients receive medications appropriate to their clinical needs, in doses that meet their own individual requirements for an adequate period of time, and the lowest cost to them and their community (Bapna et al., 1994). These requirements will be fulfilled if the process of prescribing is appropriately followed. This will include steps in defining patients problems (or diagnosis); in defining effective and safe treatments (drugs and non-drugs); in selecting appropriate drugs, dosage, and duration; in writing a prescription; in giving patients adequate information; and in planning to evaluate treatment responses. The definition implies that rational use of drugs; especially rational prescribing should meet certain criteria as follows (Ross et al., 1992): Appropriate indication. The decision to prescribe drug(s) is entirely based on medical rationale and that drug therapy is an effective and safe treatment. Appropriate drug.The selection of drugs is based on efficacy, safety, suitability, and considerations. Appropriate patient. No contraindications exist and the likelihood of adverse reactions is minimal, and the drug is acceptable to the patient. Appropriate information. Patients should be provided with relevant, accurate, important, and clear information regarding his or her condition and the medication(s) that are prescribed. Appropriate monitoring. The anticipated and unexpected effects of medications should be: appropriately monitored (Vance and Millington, 1986). Unfortunately, in the real world, prescribing patterns do not always conform to these criteria and can be classified as inappropriate or irrational prescribing. Irrational prescribing may be regarded as pathological prescribing, where the above- mentioned criteria are not fulfilled. Common patterns of irrational prescribing, may, therefore be manifested in the following forms: The use of drugs when no drug therapy is indicated, e.g., antibiotics for viral upper respiratory infections, The use of the wrong drug for a specific condition requiring drug therapy, e.g., tetracycline in childhood diarrhea requiring ORS, The use of drugs with doubtful/unproven efficacy, e.g., the use of antimotility agents in acute diarrhea, The use of drugs of uncertain safety status, e.g., use of dipyrone, Failure to provide available, safe, and effective drugs, e.g., failure to vaccinate against measles or tetanus, failure to prescribe ORS for acute diarrhea, The use of correct drugs with incorrect administration, dosages, and duration, e.g., the use of IV metronidazole when suppositories or oral formulations would be appropriate. The use of unnecessarily expensive drugs, e.g., the use of a third generation, broad spectrum antimicrobial when a first-line, narrow spectrum, agent is indicated. Some examples of commonly encountered inappropriate prescribing practices in many health care settings include: (Avorn et al., 1982). Overuse of antibiotics and antidiarrheals for non-specific childhood diarrhea, Multiple drug prescriptions, prescribe unnecessary drugs to counteract or augment, Drugs already prescribed, and Excessive use of antibiotics in treating minor respiratory tract infection. The drug use system is complex and varies from country to country. Drugs may be imported or manufactured locally. The drugs may be used in hospitals or health centers, by private practitioners and often in a pharmacy or drug shop where OTC preparations are sold. In some countries, all drugs are available over the counter. Another problem among the public includes a very wide range of people with differing knowledge, beliefs and attitudes about medicines. 1.1.3.1 Factors Underlying Irrational Use of Drugs There are many different factors that affect the irrational use of drugs. In addition, different cultures view drugs in different ways, and this can affect the way drugs are used. The major forces can be categorized as those deriving from patients, prescribers, the workplace, the supply system including industry influences, regulation, druginformation and misinformation, and combinations of these factors (Table 1.1) (Ross et al., 1992). Table 1.1: Factors affecting irrational use of drug Impact of Inappropriate Use of Drugs The impact of this irrational use of drugs can be seen in many ways: (Avorn et al., 1982). Reduction in the quality of drug therapy leading to increased morbidity and mortality, Waste of resources leading to reduced availability of other vital drugs and increased costs, Increased risk of unwanted effects such as adverse drug reactions and the emergence of drug resistance, e.g., malaria or multiple drugs resistant tuberculosis, Psychosocial impacts, such as when patients come to believe that there is a pill for every ill. This may cause an apparent increased demand for drugs. 1.1.3.2 The Rational Prescription (i.e. the right to prescribe) The rights to prescription writing must be ensuring the patients five rights: the right drug, the right dose, by the right route, to the right patient, at the right time. Illegible handwriting and misinterpretation of prescriptions and medication orders are widely recognized causes of prescription error. The medicines should be prescribed only when they are necessary, should be written legibly in ink or, other wise, should be led, and should be signed in ink by the prescriber, The patients full name and address, diagnosis should be written clearly, the name of drugs and formulations should be written clearly and not abbreviated, using approved titles only. Dose and dose frequency should be stated; in the cases of formulations to be taken as required, a minimum dose should be specified (British National Formulary, 1998). 1.2 Overview on Essential Drug Concept (EDC) Essential drugs relate to an international concept proposed by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1977. WHO in that year published the first model list of essential drug and WHO has put in enormous resources into the campaign to promote the concept of essential drugs (EDL). Essential drugs were defined as a limited number of drugs that should be available at any time to the majority of population in appropriate dosage forms and at affordable prices. In other words, it meets the criteria generally abbreviated as SANE [that mean safety , availability, need efficacy] (John, 1997). The essential drug concept is important in ensuring that the vast majority of the population is accessible to drugs of high quality, safety and efficacy relevant to their health care needs, and at reasonable cost (New Straits Times, 1997a). In support of this concept, the WHOissued a model drug list that provided examples of essential drugs. The list is drawn up by a group of experts based on clinical scientific merits, and provides an economical basis of drug use. This list is regularly, revised and, since 1997, eight editions have been published. This ensures that the need for essential drugs is always kept up-to-date with additions and deletions. Despite such rigorous revision, the number of drugs in the list remains at about 300, although the initial list comprised less. Most of the drugs are no longer protected by patents and can therefore be produced in quantity at a lower cost without comprising standards (WHO, 1995). This is indeed important for countries like Yemen not only because health care are rapidly escalating, but also because the country is still very dependent on imports of strategic commodities like drugs. The EDC will enable Yemen to focus on becoming self-reliant where generic equivalents of essenti al drugs can be manufactured and popularized to meet the health needs of the majority of the people. The limited number of drugs regarded as essential on the list offers a useful guide for practitioners as well as consumers. It underscores the general principle thata majority of diseases can be treated by similar drugs regardless of national boundaries and geographical locations (New Straits Times, 2000) Moreover, certain self-limiting diseases may not need drug treatment as such. For example, in the case of diarrhea, certain so-called potent anti-diarrhoeal drugs (including antibiotics) are not generally recommended. The more preferred treatment is oral rehydration salt that could easily be obtained or prepared at a fraction of the cost while giving the most optimum outcome. The goal of the Yemen Drug Policy was to: Prepare a list of essential drugs to meet the health of needs of the people. Assure that the essential drugs made available to the public are of good quality Improve prescribing and dispensing practices Promote rational use of drug by the public Lower cost of the drugs to the government and public Reduce foreign exchange expenditure 1.3 Yemen Essential Drug List and Drug Policy in Yemen The Concept of Essential Drugs (EDC) developed by World Health Organization (WHO) in 1977 has provided a rational basis, not only for drug procurement at national level but also for establishing drug requirements at various levels within the health care system. The WHOs Action Program on Essential Drugs (DAP) aimed to improve health care. It was established in order to provide operational support in the development of National Drug Policies (NDP), to improve the availability of essential drugs to the whole population and to work towards the rational use of drugs and consequently the patient care. The program seeks to ensure that all people, whenever they may be, are able to obtain the drugs they need at the lowest possible price; that these drugs are safe and effective; and that they are prescribed and used rationally. The first WHO Model List of Essential Drugs was published in 1977 (WHO, 1977). Since that time essential drugs become an important part of health policies in developing countries; but the Essential Drugs Program has been criticized because it emphasis in improving supply of drugs rather than their rational prescribing. The recent revised WHO Model List of Essential Drugs was published the 13th edition in April 2003 (WHO, 2003). Yemen was one of the first countries in the region adapted the EDC in 1984 and implemented this concept in the public sector (Hogerzeil et al., 1989). The first Yemen (National) Essential Drugs List (YEDL) was officially issued in 1987 based on the WHO List of Essential Drugs and other resources. The second edition of the Yemen Drugs list and the Yemen Standard Treatment Guidelines were published in 1996 (MoPHP/NEDL, (1996); MoPHP/NSTG, (1996).Recently the latest edition was published in 2001 with the Standard Treatment Guidelines (STG) in the same booklet (Mo PHP/YSTG and YEDL, 2001). The new edition of the Treatment Guidelines and the Essential Drugs List has been created through a long process of consultation of medical and pharmaceutical professionals in Yemen and abroad. Review workshops were held in Sanaa and Aden and more than 200 representatives of the health workers from different governorates including the major medical specialists participated. Essential drugs are selected to fulfil the real needs of the majority of the population in diagnostic, prophylactic, therapeutic and rehabilitative services using criteria of risk-benefit ratio, cost-effectiveness, quality, practical administration as well as patient compliance and acceptance (Budon-Jakobowiez, 1994). The YEDL was initially used for the rural health units and health centers as well as some public hospitals, but not applied for all levels of health care and the private sector. However, despite the recognition of the essential drug concept by the government of Yemen represented by the Ministry of Public Health and Population (MoPHP), drugs remain in short supply to many of the population and irrationally used. Procurement cost is sometimes needlessly high. Knowledge of appropriate drug use and the adverse health consequences remain unacceptably low. In addition, diminished funding in the public sector resulted in shortage of pharmaceuticals. The 20th century has witnessed an explosion of pharmaceutical discovery, which has widened the therapeutic potential of medical practice. The vast increase in the number of pharmaceutical products marketed in the last decades has not made drug available to all people and neither has resulted in the expected health improvement. While some of the newly invented drugs are significant advance in therapy, the majorities of drugs marketed as â€Å"new† are minor variations of existing drug preparations and do not always represent a significant treatment improvement. In addition, the vast number brand names products for the same drug increases the total number of products of this particular drug resulting in an unjustified large range of drug preparations marketed throughout the world. The regular supply of drugs to treat the most common diseases was a major problem for governments in low-income countries. The WHO recommends that activities to strengthen the pharmaceutical sector be organized under the umbrella of the national drug policy (WHO, 1988). In 1995, over 50 of these countries has formulated National Drug Policies (NDP). The NDP is a guide for action, containing the goals set by the government for the pharmaceutical sector and the main strategies and approaches for attaining them. It provides a framework to co-ordinate activities of patients involved in pharmaceutical sector, the public sector, the private sector, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), donors and other interested parties. A NDP will therefore, indicate the various courses of action to be in relation to medicines within a country. The Yemen National Drug Policy was developed since 1993 with the objectives of ensuring availability of essential drugs through equitable distribution, ensuring drugs efficacy and safety, as well as promoting the rational use of drugs. Unfortunately, it has n